School Science Lessons
Duck Project
2009-04-02
Please send comments to: J.Elfick@uq.edu.au
See: Interesting websites
Preface
Before teaching this project, discuss the content of the lessons with
a field officer of the Ministry of Agriculture and get advice on duck
breeds,
method of obtaining ducks, site for duck project, design of buildings,
control of pests and diseases, medicines, feed supplements. Use only
the
procedures, medicines and insecticides recommended by the local field
officer
of the Ministry of Agriculture. All insect sprays are dangerous. Show
the
students how to use them safely. Do not get the spray onto your hands.
Do not breathe in the spray. Wash your hands well after using spray.
Keep
the spray container in a safe place where students cannot get it. Spray
on a day of no wind but if you must spray when there is a wind, spray
down
wind. Make sure the spray does not blow on other people.
Ducks,
Queensland Department of Primary industries
Table of contents
1.0 Introduction to the duck project
2.0 How ducks live
3.0 Observing a duck
4.0 Breeds of ducks
5.0 Ordering ducks and food
6.0 Getting ready for ducklings
7.0 When the ducklings arrive
8.0 Care for ducklings
9.0 Duck sexing
10.0 Observe the ducks every day
11.0 Factors of production
12.0 Digestive organs
13.0 Reproductive organs
14.0 Onset of lay
15.0 Diseases caused by bad food
16.0 Record costs and returns for the
duck project
22.0
Prepare
chickens for food, poultry
1.0 Introduction to the Duck Project
1. Ducks grow bigger than chickens. They have flat feet for swimming,
and a flat bill for finding food in soft mud under water and they have
very long necks.
2. They are not hard to raise because they can look after themselves
if they can find enough food. Ducks do not catch many diseases or have
many pests. Ducks can live easily in many kinds of climates and find
much
of their food. Ducks like to live in wet, swampy and boggy places, and
here they may eat animals like small fish, snails and slugs.
2.0 How ducks live
1. Ducks like to swim in water and put their heads under the water
to get food, e.g. tadpoles, small frogs, small fish and water snails.
They
also like to mix water with their food, because it makes the food
softer
and easier to swallow. Ducks can also mate in water. If ducks are kept
in a house, putting the food and water side by side is best. Then the
ducks
can eat some food and then drink a little water with the food. If the
food
and water are put in places far apart, then the ducks have to run from
one place to the other.
2. If a broody duck goes for a swim and then goes back to sit on the
eggs, it may wet the eggs. This is good because duck eggs being hatched
need to be kept damp.
3. Ducks do not feel the heat or the cold much. Small ducklings can
keep their bodies warm when they are very young, and they can be kept
in
a cold brooder. Ducks have a thick layer of feathers and this can keep
them dry and warm in cold weather.
4. Ducks do not get many pests or diseases and this makes it much
easier
to keep them. Ducks are hardy animals.
5. Some breeds of ducks can lay many eggs. Ducks may lay 330 eggs in
a year if they get good food. They lay most their eggs during the night
or in the very early morning, not during the day.
The meat breeds like the Pekin and Muscovy duck are very fast growers,
e.g. Muscovy drakes may weigh 4.5 kg at 16 weeks. However, ducks do not
convert
feed to body weight as efficiently as chickens. Ducks need much energy
in their food for growth and much protein, especially when they are
young.
6. Ducks are usually timid or nervous animals, and they can be upset
by sudden changes such as the sudden appearance of a dog or a person
entering
their pen. The appearance of a light at night can also upset them.
These
sudden changes may cause the ducks to lose some of their feathers in a
moult. Ducks need to be handled very carefully and quietly if they are
to lay many eggs and grow properly. Ducks cannot protect themselves as
chickens can. Ducks are easily hurt by dogs because they cannot run as
fast and cannot fight them. The Muscovy duck is the only breed that can
fly up into trees for roosting at night. Other breeds have to sleep
under
low shelters.
7. Ducks spend much time preening their feathers. They run their
feathers
through their bills to put oil onto the feathers so that the feathers
will
not be wet by water. The ducks get the oil from a gland at the base of
the tail or the "parson's nose". They rub their bills over this and
then
spread the oil from this gland over the feathers.
8. The mating behaviour of ducks varies with the breed. The Muscovy
duck male is very aggressive and forces mating on the female. In other
breeds, before mating the male often goes through a series of actions
that
lead on to mating. He may point his head to the female and make a small
call. Then he may swim away and nod his head and turn the back of his
head
to the female.
9. Ducks like to eat their food mixed with water so place water
containers
on a netting support to allow water to drain away and not make the
floor
wet. The eating habits of ducks suggest the kinds of foods they need.
They
know when they must eat some more energy food or more protein and they
can even tell what kind of protein in they must try to find. When a
duck
is going to make then lay an egg she eats much calcium food like shell
grit. If she is not laying, she will hunt for that food.
3.0 Observing a duck
See diagram 56.3: Holding ducks
Borrow a live duck from the agriculture department
1. The bill
1.1 Note the position of the nostrils on top of the bill. The nostrils
are much further down the bill than their position on the upper beak of
a chicken.
1.2 Note the absence of any teeth in the bill. The bill is softer than
the beaks of chickens.
1.3 The upper part of the bill usually has a hooked portion that helps
the bill to hold on to objects.
2. The neck is very long.
3. The feet consist of three toes with flat webbing between them so
the feet can be used in swimming. The ends of the toes are blunt points
in most ducks. The Muscovy duck has a sharp claw at the end of the
toes.
4. The small feathers give the contour or shape of the breast. The
long flying feathers are at the ends of the wings. Find the oil gland
situated
at the base of the tail which produces the oil for preening the
feathers.
Pull out one small feather and drop it onto the surface of water to
show
that it does not easily get wet. Pour water on a duck's back to show
how
the feathers do not get wet by the water.
5. Gently feel the body to find the keel or bottom of the breastbone,
the flat bony back, the two thin lay bones on each side of the vent or
cloaca. Look at the vent. If the bird is laying eggs then, the vent
will
be soft and moist and large. If the bird is not laying at the time, the
vent will be small, dry and rather hard.
Q1. How many toes has an ordinary duck? A. Three toes.
Q2. Where is the grease gland or oil gland? A. At the base of
the tail.
Q3. Give three reasons why ducks like water. A. for helping them to
eat food, for mating, for finding their food.
Q4. When do ducks lay their eggs? A. In the night or early morning.
Q5. Why do ducks preen their feathers? A. To make them waterproof.
Q6. What are the names of the two meat breeds of ducks? A. Pekin and
Muscovy
4.0 Breeds of ducks
See diagram 56.4.1: Muscovy breed | See
diagram 56.4.2: Pekin duck
| See diagram 56.4.3: Indian Runner | See
diagram 56.4.4: Khaki Campbell
1. There are two groups of duck breeds:
1.1 The meat breeds, e.g. Pekin duck, Muscovy
1.2 The egg laying breeds, e.g. Indian Runner, Khaki Campbell, also
Indonesian breeds, e.g. Alabio duck, Bali duck, Tegal.
2. The Muscovy duck is the largest of the common duck breeds. It has
red fleshy warts growing over the upper end of the bill and over the
face.
The colour is usually white, but may be black, black and white, blue,
blue
and white or white winged black. The males (or drakes) are twice the
size
of the females (or ducks). The males may weigh 4 to 6 kg and the
females
weigh 2 to 3 kg. Commercial suppliers often sell them at 2.5 kg. The
face has an angry look. These birds do not quack but
make
a hissing sound. The Muscovy duck is a large meat breed duck.
They
can fly.
3. The Pekin duck has creamy white feathers. They grow rapidly and
are good meat birds. They stand up very straight. The males (drakes)
are
larger than the ducks and have some curled feathers on top of their
tails.
The head is large with a high top and the cheeks are large. The eyes
are
sunken under larger eyebrows and fat cheeks. The neck is long and
thick.
The Pekin duck can grow quickly if it has good food.
4. The Indian Runner duck lays large numbers of eggs. These ducks may
be brown, black, fawn or white in colour, but all of them have a very
upright
stance and are long and thin in appearance. Sometimes they may be
almost
vertical in the way the stand. The wings are small and held closely to
the body. Indian Runners are egg laying ducks and may lay close to 300
eggs in a year.
5. The Khaki Campbell duck has been bred from Wild Mallard duck and
the Indian Runner duck and other breeds. Birds of this breed do not
stand
as straight upright as the Indian Runner duck. The drakes have curled
feathers
in the centre of the tail. The colours, of these ducks may be dark or
khaki
or white. The drakes usually have a much darker colour on the head and
neck. In the khaki coloured variety, the head, neck and wing bar are
coloured
green. The ducks too usually have a darker coloured head. The Khaki
Campbell
has a small body. These ducks do not stand up as straight as the Indian
Runners and they might be closer to the ground. In both the males
and females the head is a darker colour than the body.
6. The 3 common duck breeds in Indonesia are the Tegal duck,
the Alabio duck, the Bali duck. The Alabio duck, the Tegal duck and the
Ball duck are all egg laying breeds. The Tegal lays blue green eggs,
but
eggs of the Bali duck are white. You tell the males of some ducks from
the
females because the feathers on the tail of the male turn up. The Bali
ducks are like Tegal ducks but have shorter necks. Many birds have a
tuft
of feathers on the top of the head. The body colour varies, some being
black, some brown but some are white. The eggs of Bali ducks are white.
All the Indonesian ducks are noted for their ability to lay eggs.
5.0 Ordering ducks and food
1. Buy some day-old ducklings, although they may be two days old when
they arrive. Decide whether you will order a meat breed (like Pekin
duck
or Muscovy duck) or an egg laying breed (like Indian Runner duck or
Khaki
Campbell duck. Muscovy duck ducklings can later be used to hatch eggs.
Ask the Department of Agriculture Officer to help you to order ducks
and
food. Order 20 kilos of chicken starter for twenty ducklings to
include:
1. Chicken starter rations in the form of crumbles or pellets.
2. Bran, pollard, bone meal and meat meal mixed together with one
part of pollard, two parts of
bran, and 2% meat meal and bone meal mixed.
2. Also, feed the ducklings chopped green grass.
Advice from the Queensland Departmernt of Primary Industry is as
follows:
Breeders need to be fed a balanced-diet to ensure good hatchability and
healthy ducklings. A duck-breeder diet is preferable but care should be
taken with the addition of coccidiostats to the feed as ducks are
susceptible to some poultry coccidiostats. A poultry-breeder diet is a
suitable alternative if supplemented with extra vitamin A. Fresh green
feed is a useful supplement as it provides additional vitamin A. Ducks
can be fed either wet or dry mash, crumbles or pellets. Crumbles and
pellets reduce feed spillage at the feeder and also result in cleaner
drinking troughs. Where wet mash is fed, mould growth as well as flies
can be a problem if leftover food is not removed.
6.0 Getting ready for
ducklings
1. You need a place for keeping the ducklings when they are still
young.
Little ducklings will arrive without a mother. They cannot fly or run
fast
and they can be easily hurt by dogs or rats or other larger animals so
make a small safe house. The house must have cat and dog bars to keep
out
these animals, be cool and made of bush materials.
2. Make a small cold brooder from a large carton where the ducklings
can be kept for the first ten days. Ducklings do not feel cold as much
as young chickens, so they do not need a hot brooder.
3. Provide a small pool of water for the ducklings to use as a pond.
Build a low cement wall around the pond with a pipe leading away on one
side. A small cork can be pushed into the pipe to stop it leaking but
this
can be pulled out when the pool is being cleaned.
7.0 When the
ducklings
arrive
1. When the ducklings arrive put them into the brooder and give them
water and food.
2. Observe the ducklings
and note the following:
2.1 Any feathers, 2.2 colour of the fluffy covering, 2.3 colour
of the bill, 2.4 colour are the legs, 2.5 colour are the eyes, 2.6
colour of the droppings, 2.7 any sounds.
3. Note whether the ducklings are drinking and eating. If they are not
drinking
you can carefully push the bill of a duckling into a saucer of water
and
it will start drinking. Ducklings can be made to start eating by
sprinkling
a little powdered food onto their backs. Water must be close by because
ducks like to mix their food with a little water.
8.0 Care for ducklings
1. Some ducklings may die soon after they arrive. They may not eat
well, or they be strong enough to live. If many deaths ask the local
agricultural
officer what to do.
2. Baby ducks must be given food every day. Make a roster which shows
who will go to feed the ducks each day. They must then wash
their
hands.
3. A pond must be filled and kept clean.
4. Drinking water must be deep enough so ducklings can put their heads
right under water.
9.0 Duck sexing
See diagram 56.9: Duck sexing
1. Select a warm place so the ducklings do not get a chill, or cold.
2. Hold the duckling in the palm of your left hand with its head
downwards,
and with the belly outwards. Take hold of the tail between the thumb
and
first finger of the right hand. With the second finger of the right
hand,
press in slightly inwards and upwards. This will expose the vent. Then
with the thumb and first finger of the right hand, press the vent back
and
open it up. Do this very slowly and gently. This last movement may make
the duckling empty the contents of its lower intestine. if this
happens,
gently wipe away the droppings with a rag and look closely at the vent.
3. If it is a female there will be a small cone shaped organ ending
in the vent. However, if it is a male the vent opens more and a small
pointed shape appears now and again. Sometimes it stays in view. This
shape
is small and only about 2 mm in length. Sometimes it will not appear
for
about 25 seconds after pressing and then may only show for a second or
so.
4. If the ducklings are of the Khaki Campbell breed the female the
bill is about 0.5 cm shorter than the male bill and is also "dished" or
curved. The bill of the male is 0.5 cm longer and is flatter. Also the
duck's heads are rounder and the drake's heads are flatter.
5. If an egg laying breed, you may wish to kill the males for meat
when they are 1½ to 2 Kg in weight, and only keep one male for
breeding.
10.0 Observe the ducks
every
day
See diagram 56.10: Duck feathering
1. Look very closely at the ducklings each day and to notice changes
in them:
1.1 What feathers are showing? Record the growth of feathers by
using
feathering diagrams.
1.2 What is the increase in weight each week?
Pick
up ducklings carefully and put them on a simple balance for weighing.
1.3
What changes are there in the droppings? If a bird gets sick, one of
the
first changes may be a change in the appearance of the droppings. This
should be noticed and written down.
1.4 Any difference in the look
of
the
ducklings? Are they as active? Do they look well? Do they make the same
sounds?
1.5 Which ducks have longer bills? The males or drakes have
longer
bills. A duck has three toes.
2. Ducks get oil for preening their feathers from a gland just in front
of the tail. They preen their feathers so water will not wet them.
11.0 Factors of production
See diagram 56.11: Duck energy needs
1. If the climate is too hot or too cold ducks will grow more slowly
or to produce less eggs. In tropical areas the temperature will not be
too low. Ducks will not feel too hot if they can swim go to cool
places.
2. Diseases may be caused by the food. For instance, if not enough
Vitamin D in the food, ducklings can get a disease called rickets which
makes their legs bend out of shape. Ducks need energy food and protein
food to grow fast or produce many eggs. All foods should be boiled or
fed
wet.
3. Energy foods contain white starches or oils. Most of the starchy
foods must be cooked before being given to ducks. For instance, taro,
cassava,
yams, and sweet potatoes should be boiled first. Grated coconut can be
used as an energy food and need not be boiled. Grains like wheat,
barley
and maize are better if they are crushed before feeding to ducks. Grain
can be fed whole if it has first been soaked in water. Pollard and bran
can be used as energy feeds.
4. The best protein food is fish, but people like to eat fish
themselves
rather than give it to ducks. A half kilo fish for 20 ducks for
one
day. Cook the fish and then make the flesh into small pieces that can
be
mixed with an energy food like grated coconut or boiled sweet potato.
Meat
meal is a very good protein food but it must be bought from a store.
Other
protein foods include boiled snails, boiled crabs or shellfish,
any
kinds of insects or small animals that can be cooked, soaked soybeans
can
also be used as protein food, or milk powder, or peanut meal or fish
meal.
5. Healthy foods include chopped green plants mixed with their
feed. Make a mineral mixture by mixing common salt and manganese
sulfate.
Add to the feed a quarter of a teaspoonful of mineral mixture for 5 kg
of food.
When ducks are going to lay an egg they eat some shell grit or coral
sand.
6. Ducks cannot defend themselves against dogs, hawks, cats and other
animals. If they are not
killed ducks may still get very worried by these animals and will not
grow fast. Ducks are very nervous animals and are easily upset.
12.0 Digestive organs
1. The best way to kill the duck is by breaking the neck. This can
be done if the bird is held properly. Hold the legs of the duck firmly
by the fingers of the left hand. Extend the neck fully so there is no
looseness
or slack felt in the right hand. The fingers of the right hand are held
around the head in such a way that the head can be bent backwards by
fingers
held under the bill. To kill the bird, the head is bent far back, all
the
looseness is taken up, and the neck is broken by a strong pull
downwards.
If this is done properly, you can feel the break in the neck bones.
2. To take off the feathers plunge the dead duck into near boiling
water for three minutes. If you think too much time is taken to remove
the feathers leave the feathers on the duck but to remove most of the
skin
with the feathers still on.
3. The skin is tied to the body by a lot of thin tissue called
connective
tissue. If the skin is pulled up, the connective tissue can be cut
away.
Do this until all the internal organs can be seen. Up in the neck you
will
be able to see the trachea or air tube. It has a lot of small rings
around
it. Near it is the food tube or oesophagus. Follow this up into the
neck
and cut it off near the bill. Then follow the oesophagus down to the
main
digestive organs. Before you do this remove the heart. Then find the
end
of the digestive tube near the vent, and cut through it. Then, lift out
all the digestive organs onto a large piece of paper and spread them
out.
It will be necessary to cut the thin skins tying the loops of the
intestine
together, so that the intestine can be easily seen.
When the skin has been cut away from the whole of the chest, abdomen
and legs, the whole front of the breast must be cut away and lifted off
the bird.
4. The digestive system
1. The oesophagus leads down to the small stomach or
proventriculus.
Here some digestive juice is added to the food to soften it.
2. Next is a large muscular part called the gizzard. Cut it open
to
see the thick and muscular walls and pieces of grit or coarse sand. The
muscular wall of the gizzard squeezes shut often and this makes the
grit
and sharp pieces of sand and stone to grind up the food into small
pieces.
The bird needs the gizzard because it has no teeth to grind up the food
into small pieces.
3. After the gizzard there is a loop of intestine called the
duodenum.
Lying in this loop is a pink organ called the pancreas. This organ puts
some digestive juices into the food to soften it and enable it to be
taken
into the blood.
4. The liver is a large red organ tied close to the gizzard. It
makes
a green digestive juice called bile. This bile is stored in a small bag
called the gall bladder.
(e) After the duodenum comes the long small intestine. This is called
"small" because it is not very thick. It is the place where the
digested
food is taken into the blood so it can be taken all around the body.
(f) Towards the end of the small intestine are the two caecae. These
are small tubes that are probably concerned with the absorption of
fluids.
After this, there is only a short length of large intestine before you
come
to the end of the intestine at the vent.
13.0 The reproductive
organs
1. After the digestive organs have been removed, the reproductive
organs
can be seen at the back of the abdomen.
2. In the male the two oval shaped testes are tied to the back of the
abdomen by skins of connective tissue.
3. In the female, the ovary is found at the head end of the abdominal
cavity. The ova are clustered together and held together by connective
tissue. The ova are of different sizes. Some are very small and will
have
to wait a long time before they turn into eggs. Others are large and
ready
to form into an egg. A large ovum or egg yolk is held in a network of
small
blood vessels, but there is a long place where there are no blood
vessels.
This is the place where the ovum will break away from the ovary and
start
to turn into an egg. When the yolk or ovum first breaks away from the
ovary,
it goes into a thin walled tube where it may be fertilized by sperms
which
are waiting there. It is also here that the cords are tied onto each
end
of the yolk. Then the ovum passes down into along thick walled tube. In
this tube the white of egg is added to the yolk.
After this comes a narrow tube where the skins of the egg are formed
around the egg.
Then comes a very thick walled part where the hard shell is formed
around the egg. Then the egg be laid.
4. See the network of blood vessels around the ovum then look for the
clear place where there are no blood vessels.
5. Take out the whole oviduct and spread it out in a long line on a
piece of paper.
6. In the first part of the oviduct the ovum meets the sperms. The
white of egg is added to the ovum when it enters the second part
of the oviduct which has thick walls. The skins are added to the
egg
when it passes through the narrow part. The pink organ lying in a loop
of the duodenum is the pancreas. In the small intestine the food is
taken
into the blood.
14.0 Onset of lay
1. The age at which a duck begins to lay depends on the breed. Some
of the special egg breeds may start to lay as early as 41/2 months, but
Muscovy duck ducks do not start to lay until they are about 6 months
old,
but some may not start laying until they are 71/2 months old.
2. Nests must be ready for the onset of lay. The best nests are
separated
by walls 300 350 mm and 280 mm apart. There should be a board across
the
back of the nest 150 mm wide and there should be a narrow board 50 mm
wide
across the front of the nest at ground level. The floor forms the
bottom
of the nest, but must be covered with some soft litter, such as dead
grass,
wood shavings or dried seaweed. The litter must be changed whenever it
becomes dirty. Put the nests against the wall of the house to
make
the ducks feel safe. Make one nest for every three ducks.
3. Most eggs are laid during the night or in the very early morning.
Ducks weigh up to 70 gm.
Big hen eggs only weigh 60 gm. In the first three months of lay they
may lay two eggs in one day. The age at which ducks start to lay
depends
on the breed, some start at 4 1/2 months, others at 6 months, others at
7 1/2 months.
4. Observe a duck egg. Note the size, weight and shell colour. Crack
the egg open and note what can be seen.
7 Broodiness and hatching
1. Muscovy duck males will mate with ducks of other breeds, but the
ducklings coming from this cross will not be able to breed. They will
be
sterile. So it is usual to mate Indian Runner ducks with males of the
same
breed.
2. Put one male with six or eight ducks in a separate yard together.
3. Do not collect eggs for setting as soon as ducks and drakes are
mated. Wait until they have been together for at least a month before
eggs
are collected for hatching.
4. If you hatch the eggs using an incubator the eggs must be turned
each day and sprinkled with water to keep the eggs moist.
5. If one of the ducks goes broody and sits on a nest, the eggs can
be put under her. Indian Runners and Khaki Campbell ducks do not
usually
broody so it is best not to use these breeds for hatching.
6. The best ducks to use for hatching are the Muscovy duck. If given
good soft nests they will often go broody easily. It takes 28 days for
duck eggs to hatch. If the Muscovy duck duck will not sit for this
length
of time put the eggs under another sitting duck. Reducing the amount of
protein in the food, makes ducks stay broody.
7. If a Muscovy duck duck starts to lay her own eggs, she may go broody
and sit on them. If this happens, wait for the time that the duck
leaves
the nest and goes to the water. Then her eggs can be lifted and the
other
eggs put into her nest. A duck can usually sit on 20 or even 30 eggs,
but
it must be a large duck and she must cover the eggs properly when
sitting
on them.
15.0 Diseases caused by
bad
food
1. Ducks do not get many of the kinds of diseases that attack chickens.
However, they can get diseases if their food is
not right for them.
2. Wet eye" in ducklings is caused because the birds are not getting
enough Vitamin A. The birds are not steady on their feet and may have a
wet substance coming from the eyes. Ducklings need a large amount of
Vitamin
A which is contained in green feed. Stop this disease by increasing the
amount of green feed given to the birds, mix some milk with their feed,
feed a Vitamin A supplement. Ask the agriculture department about this.
3. Rickets is caused when not enough Vitamin D. The birds lose the
use of their legs and the bones do not form properly. To stop this
disease
let the ducklings go into the sun often, include bone meal in the
feed when the ducklings are very young, extra Vitamin D3
supplement
in the feed. Ask the agriculture department about this.
4. White eye disease causes ducklings to stagger when they try to walk,
and many die quickly. The birds have a white film forming over the eye.
The disease occurs in birds less than eight weeks of age. Take away
affected
birds from the others because the disease can spread from one bird to
another.
Get zinc sulfate from the agriculture department and put a 2%
solution
into the eyes of affected ducks. Also give birds Vitamin A in green
feed.
16.0 Record costs and
returns
for the duck project
See 6.9.20.0:
Understanding the records
1. Returns refers to a record of all the money that comes from
selling
the ducks for eating, or from selling duck eggs during the year.
2. Costs refers to a record of all money spent on buying things
for
the ducks.
3. Establishment costs is money paid to buy items that will last
for
years, e.g. knives, cement, sawn timber.
Add the establishment costs and divide the total by the number of years
the items will last and still be used in the duck project. If you think
the items will least 3 years, divide the establishment costs by 3
to gives the cost for one year.
4. Production costs is the money spent each year to start a duck
project,
e.g. cost of another dozen ducklings, cost of some more chicken starter
feed for the young ducklings, cost of medicines to stop diseases like
coccidiosis.
5. To find total costs add the production costs for a year to one
fifth of the establishment costs.
6. Profit for one year = (returns - total costs)
Example
Returns:
1. Sold 4 drakes at $2.50 each $10.00
2. Sold 5 dozen eggs at $1.40 per doz. $7.00
3. Sold 6 dozen eggs at $1.40 per doz. $8.40
4. Sold 5 dozen eggs at $1.40 per doz. $7.00
5. Sold 6 dozen eggs at $1.40 per doz. $8.40
6. Sold 5 dozen eggs at $1.40 per doz. $7.00
7. Sold 4 dozen eggs at $1.40 per doz. $5.60
8. Sold 3 old ducks at $2.50 each $7.50
9. Sold 4 old ducks at $2.50 each $10.00
Total returns = $70.90
Costs:
1. Establishment costs
wire netting 3 metres at 82 c per metre $2.46
2 hinges $0.63
lock and key $2.00
hasp and staple $2.00
knife $5.00
cement, 2 bags $9.50
sawn timber to make house, nests $28.00
spade 12.66
Total establishment costs = $60.25
expected life of equipment = 5 years
So annual establishment costs = $60.22/5 = $12.05
2. Production costs
24 ducklings at 60 cents each $14.40
25 kg chicken starter $6.00
50 kg laying ration $11.00
50 gm Amprolium $1.00
Total production costs $32.40
Establishment costs $12.05
Total Costs = $44.45
Profit
= (Total returns - Total Costs)
Profit = $70.90 - $44.45 = $26.45 for first year.
History
These teaching materials were originally written and illustrated by
Mr J. A. Sutherland, Faculty of Education, University of New England,
Armidale,
Australia and later edited by Dr J. Elfick, School of Education,
University
of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.