| Chemical Name |
Molecular formula, synonyms or similar or mineral, (notes on use) |
| Acetic anhydride |
(CH3CO)2O, is highly volatile liquid with an irritating odour because acetic acid forms by reaction with moisture in the air. Acetic anhydride is corrosive to the skin, eyes and gut, but has low toxicity because of conversion to acetic acid, a natural component of the human diet. If mixed with water, it becomes acetic acid by hydrolysis in less than 3 minutes, heat is evolved, but the reaction catalysed by the acetic acid formed is not dangerous if < 25 mL is used. Prepare acetate esters from alcohols by reaction with acetic anhydride. The reactions with water can be hazardous, with alcohols may be vigorous if acid catalysts present, with boric acid, chromium (VI) oxide, permanganate salts, nitric acid and metal peroxides may be Explosive. |
| Acetic acid |
CH3COOH, ethanoic acid, weak acid, Ka small, colourless,
mobile liquid, r.d. glacial acetic acid, 17 M, 1.05 gm cm-3,
b.p. 118oC, solidifies 16.7oC, conc. 17.5 M, dilute
6 M, miscible with water, pungent odour, "glacial" ethanoic acid, (vinegar,
eisel, is about 5% acetic acid, sour wine), E260, (anti-bacterial medicine,
cleaner, sanitizer, stain remover, food). Vinegar is a weak 4-5 % solution of acetic acid, C2H4O2. Pure acetic acid is a colourless liquid, which solidifies to ice like crystals in cold weather so is called glacial acetic acid. It is a weak acid, but, like citric acid and tartaric acid, it forms carbon dioxide with chalk, baking soda, and forms hydrogen with iron filings and zinc. Acetic acid is used in the manufacture of artificial silk, “non-flam” celluloid. By treating copper with acetic acid in the presence of air a green-blue pigment forms called verdigris, i.e. impure copper acetate. |
| Acetone |
(CH3)2C=O, CH3.CO.CH3,
dimethyl ketone, 2-propanone, clear colourless volatile liquid, characteristic
smell, inflammable, r.d. 0.79 gm cm-3, b.p. 56.5oC,
miscible with water and ether and oils, sharp sweet taste, characteristic
odour, (solvent for resins, primers, plastics, in some nail polish removers
and paint thinner, may be sold as "pure acetone"). UN CAS No 1090 |
| Acetylene |
C2H2, ethyne, Use acetylene in a fume cupboard or ruse very small quantities in a well-ventilated area. Use eye and skin protection to avoid splashes. Mixtures of acetylene and air may be dangerously explosive. Also, explosive acetylides form when acetylene reacts with silver or copper (I) salts. Formerly, bicycle "carbide lamps" used calcium carbide + water --> acetylene + calcium hydroxide. However the calcium carbide used to decompose in moist air to form the unpleasant odour of acetylene. The gas has a foul smell because of the presence of traces of phosphorus hydrides. This decomposition could be lessened by pouring petroleum over the calcium carbide to exclude air and moisture. Acetylene forms highly explosive mixtures with air, but is otherwise not toxic. As prepared from the reaction of calcium carbide with water, it usually has an evil smell because of the presence of small amounts of phoshpines, R3P. Do not inhale the impure gas. Handle acetylene cylinders with care. Unplanned release of a large quantity of acetylene may result in a serious fire or explosion. In acetylene cylinders, acetylene is dissolved in acetone supported on a porous diatomaceous earth base. The pressure inside an acetylene cylinder is therefore lower than in other cylinders that contain compressed gases, e.g. nitrogen. |
| Aluminium oxide |
Al2O3,
alumina, corundum, amphoteric, (used for leaching minerals), Lung irritation,
Toxic if inhaled, alumina (porcelain), amphoteric, corundum
(hardness 9, abrasive, sand paper, in red ruby, in blue sapphire), diamantine, emery
powder, (abrasive), corroded aluminium, (bauxite, hydrated aluminium oxides
Al2O3.nH2O + laterite), alumina hydrate for craft,
alumina has amorphous or crystalline state in corundum and bauxite. |
| Aluminium potassium sulfate | Al2(SO4)3.K2(SO4).24H2O,
KAl(SO4)2.12H2O, potash alum, potassium
alum, kalinite, hydrated aluminium potassium sulfate, aluminium
potassium sulfate 12-hydrate, alum sold at grocery shops. It is
very astringent and is used for purifying water. |
| Aluminium sulfate |
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O, wrongly "alum", E520, foam agent in fire extinguishers, water filter powder, flocculation agent, food additive E520, modifier, precipitator in sewage treatment, mordant, paper sizing, for 0.l M solution., 66 g of hydrated salt in 1 L water. |
| Ammonia Ammonia solution |
NH3, (weak ammonia, about 10%, is sold as
a household cleaner), Ammonia is an invisible, extremely irritating gas with a choking smell and is flammable
in the presence of sufficient oxygen. Do not prepare ammonia in an open
room but use a fume cupboard. Ammonia is less dense than air. Ammonia solution
is a weak electrolyte so the properties of the molecules and the ions in
the solution affect its properties. Concentrated ammonia solution forms
ammonia gas whenever the container holding it is opened. Ammonia is extremely
irritating to the nose and lungs. If ammonia solution is spilt a fume cupboard
evacuate the area until the ammonia fumes have dispersed. Do not allow ammonia
solution to contact the skin. Do not add concentrated ammonia to solid iodine
because a black solid, called touch powder, NI3NH3,
forms. If dry, the slightest friction causes it to explode. Do not add concentrated
ammonia to bleach or bleaching powder because nitrogen trichloride, NCl3,
may form. This is a violently unstable liquid that may explode. Household ammonia, NH4OH,
is a strong solution of the gas used for cleaning. Cloudy ammonia contains
powdered soap in addition to ammonia. Ammonia solution is used for neutralizing
acids and for precipitating hydroxides of metals, usually as jelly-like precipitates,
formed when ammonia is added to solutions of soluble compounds of the metals,
e.g. alum (aluminium potassium sulfate), iron alum (iron (III) ammonium sulfate),
magnesium sulfate, and zinc sulfate. Household ammonia is far too strong
for most experiments. Prepare a dilute solution by adding about five parts
of water to one part of the strong solution. The gas dissolves in water to
form an alkali. Ammonia solution is used for neutralizing acids and for precipitating
metal hydroxides, usually as jelly-like precipitates when ammonia is
added to solutions of soluble compounds of the metals, e.g. alum, ferrous
sulfate, iron alum, magnesium sulfate, zinc sulfate. Household ammonia is
far too strong for most school experiments so prepare a dilute solution by
adding about five parts of water to one part of household ammonia. Ammonia solution, concentrated / 35% / 0.88 g mL-1, 18 M, 35%, 110 mL of concentrated solution for 1 litre of 2 M solution. |
| Ammonium carbonate |
(NH4)2CO3, sal volatile, aromatic
spirits of ammonia, salt of hartshorn, ammonium sesquicarbonate, baker's ammonia, crystal ammonia, colourless crystals
or white powder, ammonia-like odour, very soluble, decomposes in hot water,
E503 (commercial ammonium carbonate is double salt NH4HCO3.NH2COONH4
that releases ammonia, in sal volatile, smelling salts). Ammonium carbonate
is a white powder and it is fairly soluble in water to form a weak alkali.
It is sold in small bottles as
"smelling salts" to revive a fainting person by sniffing
the ammonia gas formed from the ammonium carbonate in the bottle.
|
| Ammonium chloride | NH4Cl, sal ammoniac, colourless, odourless, cubic crystals or crystal mass, white granular powder, sublimes without melting, weakly hygroscopic, saline taste, (soldering flux, dry cell flux in torch battery), mineral occurs in burning coal piles and volcanoes. |
| Ammonium dichromate (VI) |
(NH4)2Cr2O7, ammonium
dichromate, orange red monoclinic crystals, heat decomposes, (Not "ammonium
bichromate"). The hazardous properties of this salt are similar to those
of other soluble chromate and dichromate salts. Ammonium dichromate, along
with other yellow chromate and orange dichromate salts is believed to be
carcinogenic. An ammonium dichromate is unusual in that it undergoes an
exothermic decomposition on heating to form green chromium (III) oxide,
nitrogen gas and water. Start the reaction with a lighted match. The reaction
continues because it is exothermic. This reaction is not dangerous if only
small quantities of material are used. The reaction is dangerous if particles
of undecomposed ammonium dichromate are projected into the air and inhaled.
Ammonium dichromate is often used in the volcano experiment. |
| Ammonium iron (II) sulfate | (NH4)2SO4 FeSO4.6H2O,
Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O,
ferrous ammonium sulfate, Mohr's salt, pale blue-green, monoclinic crystals
or granules, in air slowly oxidizing and efflorescent, r.d. 1.86, store in
dark place. |
| Ammonium oxalate |
(NH4COO)2.H2O, ammonium ethanedioate-1-water colourless, odourless, rhombic crystals or white granules, if heated decomposes before melting. |
| Ammonium persulfate | (NH4)2S2O8, Ammonium
persulfate, ammonium peroxydisulfate, solutions < 25%, may be used for
etching of copper and printed circuit boards. Solid dust may damage intestinal
tract and cause allergy reaction. Use safety glasses. |
| Ammonium phosphate | (NH4)3PO4, triammonium phosphate
(V)-4-water, nitrogen and phosphorus garden fertilizer, flame retardant,
added to baking powders to promote yeast growth |
| Ammonium sulfate | (NH4)2SO4, colourless, odourless,
rhombic crystals or white granules, soluble in water but not ethanol, decomposes
above 280oC, sulfate of ammonia garden fertilizer, E517, cakes
when stored, mascagnite mineral. |
| Ammonium thiocyanate |
NH4SCN, white-yellow, monoclinic, deliquescent
crystals, m.p. 16oC, test for ferric iron, in fixatives and
explosives. |
| Aniline |
C6H5NH2, aniline oil,
phenylamine, aminobenzene, clear, oily, liquid, colourless, but darkens
to brown-red, distinct odour and taste, poisonous vapour, inflammable, b.p.
about 182oC, flash point about 70oC, store in dark
secure bottles. |
| Anthraquinone |
Anthraquinone, C14H8O2,
(9,10-dioxanthracene), light grey crystal or powder, (in plant pigments,
cochineal, alizarin red), (laxative in senna pods, cascara, rhubarb),
Anthraquinone-2-sulfonate, sodium anthraquinone-2-sulfonate, Harmful if
ingested |
| Aqua regia |
"royal water", 1 part concentrated HNO3 (aqua fortis) + 3 parts concentrated HCl, dissolves gold the "king of metals" to form AuCl4, most other acids cannot attack gold so aqua regia is called "the acid test" of gold, dissolves platinum to form H2PtCl6 |
| Borax |
Na2B4O7.10H2O,
tdisodiumetraborate-10-water, E285, sodium tetraborate decahydrate but
commercial borax partially dehydrated , di-sodium tetraborate, tynkal, colourless,
mineral, white powder, odourless, monoclinic crystals or granules, r.d. 1.73,
m.p. 75oC, efflorescent in dry air, melts at 75oC,
anhydrous at 320oC, mildly toxic so avoid ingesting and skin
contact, (buffer solutions, fire retardant, metallurgy flux, washing powders
(laundry booster), bath cleaning, fungicide, insecticide, detergent booster,
preservative, but not allowed in most countries), used a lot in the furniture
industry. |
| Boric acid | H3BO3, boracic acid, orthoboric acid, trioxyboric (III) acid, colourless, odourless, white to transparent, triclinic crystals, m.p. about 160oC, if heated decomposes to anhydride B2O3, occurs near fumaroles, (sold in pure form as a powder as eye medicine, disinfectant, insecticide), E284. |
| Butenedioic acid | C4H4O4, HCOOHC:CHCOOH,
(CH2)2(COOH)2, cis and trans forms Butenedioic acid, cis form: cis-butenedioic acid, maleic acid, maleinic acid, malanic acid, toxilic acid Butenedioic acid, cis form: maleic acid heated forms maleic anhydride: (-CO.C.CO-), cis-butane-1,4-dioic anhydride Butenedioic acid, trans form: fumaric acid, (fumarates), fruity taste, Food acid E297, in Fumaria officinalis, mushrooms, lichens Butenedioic acid, trans form: trans-butenedioic acid, fumaric acid, (in Krebs cycle) |
| Butanedione |
CH3COCOCH3, 2,3-butanedione, dimethylglyoxal,
dimethyldiketone, diacetyl, biacetyl, butter flavour, creamy odour. |
| Calcium carbide |
CaC2, calcium dicarbide, "carbide", acetylenogen,
Calcium carbide was used in carbide lamps in cave explorer lamps, formerly
in bicycle headlamps and underground mines. Many fires and explosions resulted
from these lamps and they are now rarely used. The main hazard with calcium carbide is the ignition of air / acetylene mixtures. A violent explosion may occur, depending on the proportions of air and acetylene. Acetylene, when undiluted with air, burns with a smoky flame. Before igniting acetylene, be sure that it is not mixed with air. Commercial calcium carbide usually contains sulfur and phosphorus compounds that react with water to form strongly smelling gaseous impurities that act as a convenient indicator for the presence of acetylene. |
| Calcium carbonate | CaCO3, powder, almost insoluble in water unless dissolved
CO2 present, calcite, chalk, limestone, Iceland spar, marble
chips, marble whiting, whiting, chalk, calc spar, precipitated chalk, pearl,
coral, egg shells, whitewash, calcimine, seashells, (in antacid medicines
to suppress reflux), Vienna lime, E170 firming agent food additive), heated
in lime kiln to form lime CaO, powdered abalone or oyster shell used as folk
medicine. (school chalk, but usually school chalk is calcium sulfate) "Plasticine", modelling clay, (said to contain calcium carbonate, stearic acid, petroleum jelly, whiting, ten pigments), formerly "Harbutt's plasticine", "Plastilina" is a similar product |
| Calcium dihydrogen phosphate (V) | Ca(H2PO4)2, monohydrate
Ca(H2PO4)2.H2O, calcium tetrahydrogen
di-orthophosphate, calcium dihydrogen phosphate, leavening agent in baking
powders |
| Calcium hypochlorite |
Ca(OCl)OH, bleaching powder, (30% chlorine), chlorinated lime, chloride
of lime, calcium oxychloride grey-white powder, irritating odour, exothermic
when dissolved in water, may explode if not stored securely, (bleaching powder
contains both calcium hypochlorite [calcium chlorate (I), chlorinated lime]
and calcium hydroxide, water sanitizing, whitening agent, "solid chlorine"
is 70% chlorine for swimming pools). Bleaching powder forms chlorine gas,
which is highly irritant to the lungs. If acid is added to bleaching powder,
large amounts of chlorine are produced. The mixture becomes hot and may boil
violently. Do not add concentrated ammonia to bleaching powder because nitrogen
trichloride, NCl3, may form. This is a violently unstable liquid,
liable to explode without apparent reason. Bleaching powder is a convenient
source of chlorine gas for other experiments. Add dilute hydrochloric acid
from a dropping funnel to a slurry of bleaching powder and water in a conical
flask fitted with a rubber stopper and gas collection system. Keep a solution
of sodium hydroxide nearby to stop the reaction. Adding sodium hydroxide
solution to the mixture does not pose any problems. Dispose of the waste
mixture by diluting it with water and washing it down the drain. |
| Calcium magnesium carbonate | CaCO3MgCO3, dolomite [Also, "dolomite" is any high Mg:Ca carbonate rock.]. |
| Calcium oxide |
CaO, lump, quicklime, lime, caustic lime, burnt lime, E529, thermoluminescent
in oxy-hydrogen flame, limelight, for excess soil acidity, sold in building
supplies shops |
| Calcium phosphate (V) | Ca3(PO4)2, white powder, insoluble, from apatite mineral Ca5(PO4)3(OH, F, Cl), and rock phosphate, from animal bones and teeth, (used for fertilizer, facilitate uptake of DNA into cells, "bone ash" for craft), E341 Calcium phosphates, (buffer, sequestrant), formerly "calcium orthophosphate". |
| Calcium sulfate (VI) |
CaSO4.2H2O, powder, calcium sulfate dihydrate,
gypsum, calcium hemihydrate, anhydrite mineral, (plaster of Paris, CaSO4.½H2O,
potter's plaster, school chalk, blackboard chalk, selenite, craft modelling
powder), E516, (can be shaped before setting, stain remover), alabaster,
in evaporating lakes, anti-inflammatory action in human body |
| Chromic acid Chromium (VI) oxide |
Chromic (VI) acid, H2CrO4, (sodium dichromate
in sulfuric acid), Formerly, a glass-cleaning solution "chromic acid" was
prepared by mixing a metal chromate or dichromate with concentrated acid
in a chromate salt solution. However this solution is dangerous and other
glass cleaning detergent solutions should be used. Chromium (VI) oxide, forms
explosive mixtures with combustibles or organic compounds and should not
be used for glass cleaning. |
| Chromium (III) oxide | Cr2O3, chromium oxide, chromium trioxide, chromic oxide, chrome green, green chromium oxide for craft. |
| Citric acid | C6H8O7, CH2.COOH.HO.C.COOH.CH2COOH,
colourless to white crystalline powder readily soluble in water, odourless, translucent, orthorhombic
crystals or granules, "2-hydroxy propane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid",
m.p. about 100oC, slightly deliquescent in moist air, loses
water of crystallization in dry air, (lemon juice), store in tight containers,
very weak acid,
with little corrosive action, sour taste of lemons, grapefruit, and
other citrus fruits, also gooseberries and raspberries, caused by the citric acid in them, ingredient
in artificial lemonade powder. In health salts
it acts with sodium bicarbonate in the mixture to produce the “fizz” when
the mixture is added to water.
Also "2-hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid", is about 10% dry weight
of lemons. |
| Cobalt (II) nitrate |
Co(NO3)2.6H2O, cobaltous nitrate,
cobalt nitrate hexahydrate, red, deliquescent, monoclinic crystals, m.p.
50o to 60oC, in dyes and inks. |
| Cobalt (II) oxide |
CoO, cobalt oxide, cobaltous oxide, green-orange to pink
solid, craft blue glaze, do not inhale. |
| Copper (II) carbonate | CuCO3, CuCO3.Cu(OH)2.H2O,
basic copper carbonate, (azurite, malachite), cupric carbonate, green precipitate,
bremen blue, green verditer, craft green glaze, verdigris on copper exposed
to atmosphere. |
| Copper (II) chloride | CuCl2, cupric chloride, brown-yellow powder, covalent, green fireworks, copper (II) chloride dihydrate CuCl2.2H2O. |
| Copper (II) nitrate |
Cu(NO3)2.3H2O, copper nitrate crystals, blue solid, deliquescent, anhydrous form probably covalent. |
| Copper (I) oxide | Cu2O, cuprous oxide, red copper oxide, ruby copper, cuprite,
for craft, red solid, insoluble, (used to make red glass). |
| Copper (II) sulfate | CuSO4.5H2O, copper (II) sulfate(VI)-5-water,
cupric sulfate, blue, triclinic crystals, efflorescent in dry air, hold
on to water of crystallization in hot dry air but anhydrous at 250oC,
bluestone, blue vitriol, blue copperas, (chalcanthite mineral, CuSO4.5H2O
has sweet metallic taste and is slightly poisonous), (Bordeaux mixture
is copper sulfate and lime used as a fungicide), wood preservative, "Root
Eater", "Bluestone" algaecide, (algaecide) |
| Copper ferrocyanide |
CU2Fe(CN)6, Hatchett's Brown dye,
Traube's colloidal solution, (used to remove caesium and strontium from
radioactive waste). |
| Devarda's alloy | powder, 50% Cu, 45% Al, 5% Zn, tests for NO3-,
reaction with NaOH strongly exothermic. |
| 1,6-Diaminohexane (COR 2280) | NH2(CH2)6,NH2,
( preferred name: hexamethylenediamine, HMDA, 5% solution in water), ethylenediamine,
hexamethylene diamine, hexane-1, 6-diamine, store in refrigerator, strongly
alkaline, (use < 25 mL), used to make nylon. |
| 1,4-Dichlorobenzene |
C6H4Cl2, m.p. 53oC, crystalline,
p-dichlorobenzene, paradichlorobenzene, 1,4-dichlorobenzol, "dichlorobenzene",
deodorizer, solid blocks deodorant in male toilets, (Substitute hexadecan-1-ol
or octadecan-1-ol for melting point curve experiments.), (Use ethanol to
prepare dilute solutions). |
| Dichloromethane |
CH2Cl2, methylene chloride, methylene dichloride,
Freon 30, colourless liquid, b.p. 41oC, (refrigerant, degreasing,
cleaning fluid, paint remover, solvent), ozone-depleting chemical so use
very small amounts, (Use ethanol as solvent for dilute solutions). |
| Disodium hydrogen
phosphate (V) |
Na2HPO4, Na2HPO4.12H2O, disodium hydrogen orthophosphate (V), disodium orthophosphate, sodium phosphate dibasic, sodium phosphate dodecahydrate, white monoclinic or rhombic crystals or granules, r.d. 1.5, m.p. 34oC to 35oC, easily loses H2O, E339 (II)., anticaking agent, retards boiler scale |
| EDTA |
(HOOCCH2)2N(CH2)2N(CH2COOH)2,
ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid, sequestering agent for metal ions,
Mg2+, Ca2+ Complexing agent for most metal ions, especially Ca and Mg. Water softening and remove scale from kettles, medical removal of excess metallic ions. |
| EDTA disodium salt | (HOOCCH2)2N(CH2)2N(CH2COONa)2.2H2O, (0.1 M, solution + sodium azide). |
| Ethanol, 95% |
C2H5OH, ethyl alcohol, clear, colourless, mobile liquid, volatile, inflammable, distinct odour, miscible with water and most organic solvents, rectified spirit, grain alcohol, spirit of wine, constant boiling mixture = 95.6% ethanol and 4.4% water, b.p. -78.3oC, absolute alcohol = 100% ethanol, r.d. 0.79 gm cm-3, b.p. 78.5oC, absorbs moisture from air. |
| Ethanediol |
Ethanediol, CH2OH.CH2OH,
1,2-dihydroxyethane, ethylene glycol, glycol, b.p. 197.5oCl,
ethane-1,2 diol, car radiator antifreeze, paint and plastic solvent. |
| Ethyl acetate |
CH3COOC2H5, colour less liquid, fruity
odour, b.p. 77oC, ethyl ethanoate, (medicine, lacquer solvent). |
| Formaldehyde solution |
HCHO, CH2O (aq), gas readily soluble in water, methanal,
(+10% methanol), formalin: 40% methanal solution, (disinfectant, plastics),
Do not mix with HCl because carcinogenic bis(chloromethyl) ether may form,
so do not dispose formaldehyde and HCl in the same sink. Formaldehyde (methanal)
is highly poisonous and probably carcinogenic and should be handled with
extreme care. Formaldehyde is transported and stored as a concentrated aqueous
solution called formalin. When a bottle of formaldehyde is opened, a large
amount of gas may be released. Do not inhale the formaldehyde gas. Do experiments
with concentrated formaldehyde solutions in a fume cupboard. However dilute
formaldehyde solutions produce little formaldehyde and can be safely handled
in the open laboratory. Preserve biological specimens in a solution of 50%
ethanol and 50% water, instead of formaldehyde solution. Do not mix hydrochloric
acid and formaldehyde solution because highly carcinogenic bis(chloromethyl)
ether may form. Do not store bottles of hydrochloric acid near formaldehyde
because the reaction might occur in the air. Do not dispose of formaldehyde
solutions and hydrochloric acid in the same sink system. |
| Formic acid |
HCOOH, methanoic acid, conc. 46 M, hydrogen carboxylic acid, in ants
and stinging nettles, most simple carboxylic acid, Formic acid is highly poisonous and should be treated with care. It is highly volatile and the vapour should not be inhaled. Formic acid is the only simple aliphatic carboxylic acid to possess reducing properties because of the presence of a -CHO component in the molecular structure. So formic acid is both an aldehyde and a carboxylic acid. HCOOH + H2O <--> H3O+ + HCOO-, Ka = 1.8 X 10-4. |
| Fuchsine |
magenta dye, rosaniline hydrochloride, C20H19N3HCl,
triphenylmethane dyestuff, dark green crystals in water form purple-red
solution, (the colour of flowers of Fuchsia, Onagraceae), disinfectant
for skin infections, stain bacteria (not "fuchsin"), basic fuchsine has variable
contents including rosaniline and similar compounds, used in Schiff reagent
test for aldehydes, acid fuchsine is mixture of basic fuchsine + sulfonic
groups to decolorize it. |
| Glucose |
Glucose, C6H12O6
(+), glucose syrup, grape sugar, dextrose, dextrose monohydrate, d-glucose,
Glucose (D+), blood sugar, glucose anhydrous, glucose (for babies),
"Glucodin" Glucose (MERCK No. 8342, SIGMA No. G 8270). Microbiology chemical Glucose is called grape sugar because of its occurrence in grapes, also present in table syrup, black treacle, and ripe apples. cheap sweetening material for confectionery and sweets, e.g. barley sugar. Glucose is only half as sweet as ordinary sugar but is more easily digested. It is manufactured by boiling starch with dilute sulfuric acid. Glucose is a carbohydrate, the hydrogen and oxygen being in the same proportion as in water. |
| Glycerol | CH2OH.CHOH.CH2OH, glycerin, glycerine, clear, viscous,
colourless odourless syrupy fluid that readily absorbs moisture, propane-123-triol, propane-1, 2, 3-triol, glycerin
jelly, b.p. 290oC
and decomposes, r.d. 1.26, absorbs water from air, miscible, soluble in water
and alcohol, sweet taste and no smell and has no action on litmus paper. Used
in cosmetics, toothpaste, shampoo, loosens stains, medical uses, manufacture
of explosives and shaving cream. It is byproduct of the manufacture of soap.
|
| Hydrochloric acid |
HCl, spirits of salts, muriatic acid, clear, colourless, fuming liquid,
conc. 12 M, r.d. 1.18 gm cm-3, 12 mol dm-3, E507,
dilute HCl 6 M, (solution of hydrogen chloride gas), distinct odour, (aqua
regia: 3 vols concentrated HCl + 1 vol concentrated HNO3). Hydrochloric
acid, HCl (aq). Concentrated hydrochloric acid releases hydrogen chloride
gas if open to the atmosphere. This gas is highly irritant to the lungs
and causes coughing. Use the concentrated gas in a fume cupboard to avoid
inhalation. If a container of the concentrated acid is broken outside a
fume cupboard, evacuate the area until the fumes have dissipated. Small
amounts of hydrogen chloride gas are relatively harmless and a <0.1
M dilute acid has low toxicity. The human stomach forms hydrochloric acid
as part of the digestive process. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is extremely
damaging to the eyes. Wear a face shield when doing any pouring experiments
that might result in splashing of the liquid. Avoid skin contact with hydrochloric
acid. Wash any area of the body that has been in contact with hydrochloric
acid with copious amounts of water. Dilution of hydrochloric acid with water
does releases some heat, but not as much as sulfuric acid. Always dilute
by adding acid to water, not water to acid. Do not mix hydrochloric acid
with formaldehyde solution because highly carcinogenic bis(chloromethyl)
ether may form. Do not store bottles of hydrochloric acid near formaldehyde
because the reaction might occur in the air. Do not dispose of formaldehyde
solutions and hydrochloric acid in the same sink system. |
| Hydrogen peroxide |
H2O2, "peroxide", peroxide (of hydrogen), bleach, antiseptic, wastewater
treatment for BOD, (biological oxygen demand) Hydrogen peroxide concentration 30% solution is not permitted in schools. Contact with the eyes can cause serious long-term damage. Corrosive solution can cause skin burns. Decomposition may cause oxygen pressure build-up. Tightly sealed bottles of hydrogen peroxide may explode due to a build up of pressure of oxygen gas. Forms potentially explosive compounds with ketones (acetone), alcohols (ethanol), esters, glycerine (glycerol), aniline, triethylamine and sodium carbonate. Do not mix hydrogen peroxide with powdered Mg, Zn or Al. A 3% solution is unstable. It decomposes slowly in storage to yield water and oxygen. Can decompose rapidly in the presence of catalysts. Difficult to transport because of regulations governing is transport by air, sea and land. Sold as a colourless solution for disinfecting and for bleaching hair, silk, and wool. It readily parts with one of its two oxygen atoms and forms water. This oxygen which is responsible for the disinfecting and bleaching actions. The strengths of the solutions usually sold are marked as “10 volume” and “20 volume”. these figures refer to the volume of oxygen given by 1 cc of the liquid. Thus “20 volume” means that 1 cc of the solution yields 20 cc of oxygen. If possible buy a small bottle of “20 volume” solution. It is usually kept in dark glass bottles, because light hastens the decomposition into water and oxygen. |
| Iron (II) ammonium
sulfate (V) |
Fe(NH4SO4),2.6H2O,
Mohr's salt, ferrous ammonium sulfate, ammonium iron (II) sulfate, ammonium
ferrous sulfate, 0.1 M solutions used to test cations, iron (II) compounds
can be oxidized by air, but acidified solutions are stable. |
| Iron (III) chloride |
FeCl3, ferric chloride anhydrous, iron chloride, iron
trichloride, flores martis, black-brown, catalyst, 20% solution used for
printed circuit board etchant but use eye protection and gloves. FeCl3.6H2O,
iron (III) chloride hexahydrate, 0.1 M electrochemistry solution harmless. |
| Iron (III) oxide | Fe2O3, ferric oxide, Fe2O3.3H2O,
ferric sesquioxide, rust, red iron oxide, red ferric oxide, ferric oxide
red, red iron oxide, haematite, magnetite, brown-red powder, yellow / brown
pigment, red ochre, burnt ore, burnt ochre, jewellers rouge polish, Venetian
red, crocus powder, source of iron, mixed with red clay for liver function. |
| Lead (II) ethanoate |
Pb(CH3COO)2.3H2O, lead (II) acetate, lead acetate, m.p. 75oC, sugar of lead, white to colourless, monoclinic crystals or granules, slowly efflorescent, absorbs CO2 from air and becomes insoluble, test paper for H2S. |
| Lead (II) nitrate |
Pb(NO3)2, lead nitrate, white to colourless,
translucent cubic or monoclinic crystals, decomposes at 470oC,
only common soluble lead compound, forms explosive mixture with combustible
materials, e.g. S, P, metal powders, heated solid forms highly toxic nitrogen
dioxide, test for anions: forms bright yellow precipitate of lead iodide
with sodium or potassium iodide. |
| Lead (II) oxide, mono | PbO, yellow lead oxide, litharge, flux, lead monoxide, lead protoxide,
massicott, yellow amorphous powder, fused and crystalline form called litharge
used as pigment in glass and enamels. |
| Lead (II/IV) oxide |
Pb3O4, (2PbO.PbO2), dilead (II) lead
(IV) oxide, lead tetroxide, trileadtetroxide, triplumbic tetroxide, massicot,
red lead, minium, red lead oxide, (anticorrosive paint pigment, flux, for
craft) Reacts violently with Al and Mg powders and some organic materials.
Do not heat on a charcoal block. Old paints may contain > 30% lead but
nowadays may contain < 1% lead. |
| Magnesium carbonate | 3MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.3H2O, magnesium carbonate
basic, light powder, magnesite, (carbonate of magnesia for craft), [food
additive E504, drying agent (desiccant) and anti-caking agent in table
salt], (a mild laxative and Antacid
medicine), heat resistant products, dolomite MgCO3.CaCO3. |
| Magnesium chloride | MgCl2, magnesium chloride anhydrous, magnesium dichloride,
Magnesium chloride hexahydrate, MgCl2.6H2O, magnesium
chloride crystals, (hygroscopic), E511, electrolysed to form magnesium
metal. |
| Magnesium hydroxide |
Mg(OH)2, Harmful, irritates eyes and skin,
brucite, weak solubility so weak base, absorbs carbon dioxide from the air
in presence of water, (hydrated form called milk of magnesia, a laxative
and Antacid medicine), E528. |
| Magnesium nitrate |
Mg(NO3)2.6H2O, magnesium
nitrate hexahydrate, AAS Solution, oxidizing (OXD 1474), explosive mixtures
with organic compounds and combustible materials. |
| Magnesium sulfate | MgSO4.7H2O,
hydrated magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, Epsom salts (natural spring of water
at Epsom in Surrey, England with allegedly health giving properties), epsomite,
kieserite, colourless to white, odourless, rhombic crystals or granules,
the white needle-shaped crystals dissolve easily in water forming a neutral solution,
loses water of crystallization to dry air and possibly microwaves and even
sound waves to form green powder hexahydrate MgSO4.6H2O,
anhydrous at 250oC, bitter salt, (laxative medicine to counteract constipation and a component of some health salts, unshrinking
woollen clothing, fire-proofing), crystal gardens experiments, test for
Ba and Sn cations. |
| Manganese (IV) oxide | MnO2, manganese dioxide, manganese black, in pyrolusite, black powder resembling
carbon in appearance but can be distinguished from carbon because
it does not burn away when heated on a metal lid, forms a wine-coloured borax bead,
(catalyst, oxidizing agent, depolarizer in dry cells, e.g. flashlight batteries). Use as catalyst
for decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Do NOT use for thermal decomposition
of potassium chlorate. Hydrated manganese oxide in some medicines for schizophrenics
and diabetics. Industrial use in the preparation of chlorine gas and as a catalyst
in the preparation of oxygen. |
| Mercury (I) chloride |
Hg2Cl2, calomel, mercury (I) chloride,
horn quicksilver, Hg2Cl2, (mercurous chloride, HgCl),
white crystals, r.d. 7.15, sublimes at 400oC, (reference electrode
in calomel electric cells, mercury electrode in potassium chloride solution
+ calomel), Calomel is found with cinnabar. |
| Mercury (I) nitrate | Forms explosive mixtures with combustible materials and
organic compounds. The pure chemical has low toxicity if ingested. Used in
redox reactions and metal displacement reactions. Millon's reagent contains
mercury (I) nitrate, mercurous nitrate, in nitrous acid. Mercury (I) nitrate
was formerly used in the manufacture of felt hats, caused tremors in the
workers and leading to the term "mad as a hatter", a character in "Alice
in Wonderland" by Lewis Carroll. |
| Mercury (II) nitrate |
Highly toxic if ingested or absorbed through the skin,
cumulative poison. Use eye and skin protection when splashes can occur. Forms explosive mixtures with combustible materials and organic compounds. Do not heat the solid because mercury vapour and nitrogen dioxide forms. Do not add ethanol to solutions of mercury (II) nitrate in nitric acid because highly explosive mercury fulminate forms. Do not use for redox reactions. Use < 5 mL of 0.1 M per activity. |
| Mercury (II) chloride |
HgCl2, mercuric chloride, mercury bichloride,
mercury sublimate, corrosive sublimate, white crystalline solid,
colourless, odourless, rhombic crystals or granules, r.d. 5.4, m.p. 277oC,
solution is poisonous and very dangerous because the solution looks like
water, should NOT be in the school laboratory, formerly used to treat syphilis |
| Mercury (II) oxide |
HgO, mercuric oxide, yellow to orange, dense, odourless
powder, r.d. 11.14, decomposed by light, yellow oxide of mercury or red
oxide of mercury, store in dark bottles, do not heat to form oxygen gas
because highly toxic mercury vapour forms. Mixture with powdered sulfur
is explosive. |
| Methanol |
CH3OH,
methyl alcohol, wood alcohol, clear liquid, distinct odour, volatile, flammable,
poisonous, methanol and illegal home-made alcoholic beverages may cause blindness.
Use < 5 mL of 0.1 M per activity or use in a fume cupboard. Substitute
ethanol or methylated spirits as alternative solvent. |
| 2-methoxyethanol |
Methyl cellosolve, ethylene glycolmonomethyl ether, Use in a fume cupboard o use <50 mL or g in a well-ventilated area. May cause long-term nerve damage. May be teratogenic. |
Methylated spirits |
C2H5OH, ( 95% CH3CH2OH,
5% CH3OH),
methylated ethanol, "spirits", methylated spirits sold retail in Australia
as 95% ethanol, UN 1170, duplicator fluid / spirit, Fordigraph spirit duplicator
fluid, spirit vini meth, (90% ethanol + 5% v/v methanol, wood alcohol + 5%
water), denatured alcohol, denatured spirits, (+ 2% of methyl alcohol, pyridine,
+ other coal-tar unpalatable chemicals, (in UK ethanol + 9.5% methanol +
0.5% pyridine and a blue dye). The additional substances "denature" the ethanol
so it cannot be consumed. Use in illegal home-made alcoholic beverages may
cause blindness. If swallowed do NOT induce vomiting because it may enter
the lungs. Methylated spirit is highly flammable and must not be used near
naked flames, e.g. boiled in a beaker set on wire gauze over a Bunsen burner
to extract chlorophyll from leaves. Do not heat methylated spirit over a
Bunsen burner, even in a closed container such as a flask with a reflux condenser
because the flask may crack. Methylated spirit burns with a nearly colourless
flame so if there is a fire, be careful of the invisible flames. Use a carbon
dioxide fire extinguisher and fire blankets to smother the flames. Instead,
use a water bath to heat methylated spirit in a flask. Even if the flask
cracks, a mixture of water and methylated spirit is much less flammable than
pure methylated spirit. Repeated contact of the skin with methylated spirit
can cause dermatitis so wear rubber gloves if using methylated spirit as
a solvent for cleaning. Do not mix methylated spirit with an oxidizing acid,
e.g. concentrated nitric acid, because a vigorous reaction or explosion
may occur. Use methylated spirit as a cheap low toxicity cleaning solvent
for solvent extraction. Observe the rapid changes in colour during the dissolution
of plant pigments in methylated spirit |
| Milk |
Milk contains fat, milk sugar ( lactose) and called casein. When milk is left to stand the fat rises to the surface as cream. In the manufacture of butter and cheese the cream is separated. The remaining watery liquid, (skimmed milk), is a solution of milk sugar and casein. Skimmed milk can have the water evaporated to form dried milk powder. Also the casein is used to make casein plastics. |
| Monosodium glutamate, MSG |
C5H8NNaO4.H2O,
HOOCCH(NH2),CH2CH2COONa, sodium hydrogen
glutamate, white crystals, soluble in water, flavour enhancer especially
for Chinese food but some people allergic, formerly from seaweed Laminaria
japonica. |
| Nessler's reagent |
Potassium tetraiodomercurate, not permitted in some school systems because it contains mercury, Nessler's solution (Julius Nessler 1827-1905) is a solution of mercury (II) iodide in potassium iodide made alkaline with sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, K2HgI4, in caustic soda solution. Add reagent to original solution. A brown colour or precipitate indicates the presence of ammonium ion. The test is very sensitive. A trace of ammonia give a yellow colour but larger amounts of ammonia give a brown colour or precipitate. The test solution must contain no NH4+ added during analysis. |
| Nitrobenzene |
C6H5NO2, mononitrobenzene,
pale yellow, oily liquid, unpleasant almond odour, poisonous, r.d. 1.2, b.p.
211oC. Highly toxic by all routes of exposure, possibly carcinogenic. Avoid inhaling vapour and skin contact so use small quantities < 25 mL or g in a well-ventilated area. May be explosive when heated. A solution / mixture < 0.1% is not hazardous. |
| Oxalic acid |
(COOH)2.2H2O, ethanedioic acid-2-water, acid of sugar, colourless, white, odourless, monoclinic crystals or granules, r.d. 1.62, m.p. 101oC - 102oC, sublimes easily above 100oC, decomposed by heat, (in rhubarb and many plants). |
| Phosphorus pentoxide | P4O10, phosphorus (V) oxide, white
powder, hexagonal crystals, deliquescent, thermoluminescent. Reacts violently
with water to form phosphoric acid, liberating a large amount of heat, reacts
violently with iodides. With sodium and potassium metals ignition on contact.
With formic acid forms highly toxic carbon monoxide gas.. Used as a dehydrating
agent. The crust on the surface of old samples is mostly phosphoric acid,
but remove it before using the phosphorus pentoxide beneath. |
| Phosphoric acid |
H3PO4, orthophosphoric acid, phosphoric (V) acid,
orthophosphoric acid, as solution is colourless, odourless liquid, conc.
14.7.M, r.d. 1.71 to 1.75, miscible with water and ethanol, "Kill-rust",
E33, weak acid, or white rhombic solid, 85% W /W, 90% W / W, toilet bowl cleaner |
| Potassium bromide | KBr, potassium bromide, colourless, white, cubic crystals or granules,
r.d. 2.75, m.p. 730oC, (photography, formerly a sedative and
supposed to be put in tea of soldiers to control sexual urges), used to
prepare bromine water, For 0.1 M solution., 12 g in 1 L water |
| Potassium carbonate |
K2CO3 anhydrous, "potash", (pearl ash, commercial
potassium carbonate), salt of tartar, white, odourless granules, anhydrous
potassium carbonate, r.d. 2.29, m.p. 891oC, (anhydrous is hygroscopic,
cakes in moist air), E501, strong alkaline solution, For 0.1 M solution.,
13.8 g in water, (soap-making, glass making, sourdough) |
| Potassium chlorate |
KClO3, potassium chlorate (V) potassium perchlorate, Berthollet's
salt (Claude Berthollet 1748-1822), colourless, white, odourless, monoclinic crystals, r.d. 2.32, m.p.
368oC then decomposes, explodes in contact with sulfur compounds,
(in explosives, fireworks and weed killers), Do not use potassium chlorate
to prepare oxygen with manganese dioxide catalyst. |
| Potassium chloride | KCl, sylvite, (sylvine), mineral, muriate of potash fertilizer, white,
odourless, cubic crystals or powder, slightly hygroscopic, diet salt substitute,
E508, extracted from waters of Dead Sea, sold as "lite salt" |
| Potassium chromate |
K2CrO4, lemon-yellow crystals, m.p. 975oC, alkaline aqueous solution. Potassium chromate, as with other chromium (VI) salts, may be carcinogenic so handle it with care. However when used in dilute solution, near neutral pH, it is relatively safe. When mixed with acid, chromate ions, CrO42-, first form dichromate ions, Cr2O72-, then chromic acid, H2CrO4. Solutions containing chromic acid are powerfully oxidizing and highly corrosive. Do not use the cleaning mixture called “chromic acid”, prepared by dissolving a metal chromate or dichromate in concentrated sulfuric acid. This cleaning mixture is not permitted in schools because it is dangerously corrosive to skin and eyes and is probably no more effective as a cleaning agent than strong detergent solutions or a suitable solvent. Reactions of potassium chromate and dichromate with sulfur, carbon, magnesium, aluminium and phosphorus are dangerous and are not permitted in schools. |
| Potassium dichromate |
K2Cr2O7, potassium bichromate, red
prussiate of potash, ferro prussiate, bichrome, orange to red, odourless,
monoclinic crystals or granules, r.d. 2.69, m.p. 398oC, strong
oxidizing agent, toxic and fire risk from oxidation, formerly used mixed
with sulfuric acid to to clean laboratory glassware but nowadays this procedure
not permitted in schools. Oxidation reactions involve the reduction of solutions
of chromate or dichromate ions that cause colour changes from yellow or orange
to pale green or colourless solutions. The reactions with the formation of
an insoluble metal chromate give brightly coloured precipitates. Do not attempt
to isolate these precipitates because they are carcinogenic. Prepare these
precipitates in the smallest quantities that allow them to be seen. Do not
use potassium dichromate solution to colour water for demonstrations. Used
in machines to breath test for alcohol. |
| Potassium ferricyanide | K3Fe(CN)6.3H2O, potassium hexacyano
ferrate (III), potassium ferric cyanide, ruby red, monoclinic crystals,
heat decomposes then melts, r.d. 1.89, case-hardening agent, forms good
crystals, used in redox experiments, Prussian blue dye, chemical analysis
uses characteristic colour reactions, heating with concentrated sulfuric
acid forms carbon monoxide gas, ( in dyeing, etching blueprint paper, fertilizer),
Highly toxic, boiling with dilute acids forms cyanide gas, Highly toxic,
with concentrated ammonia solution may explode. |
| Potassium ferrocyanide | K4Fe(CN)6.3H2O, potassium hexacyanoferrate
(II)-3-water, coordination compound, yellow prussiate of soda, yellow prussiate
of potash, prussiate of potassium, yellow monoclinic crystals or powder,
r.d. 1.85, case hardening agent, used to detect Fe3+ ions, efflorescent,
anhydrous at 100oC, Environmental danger, direct heating of the
solid forms cyanogen gas, Highly toxic, heating with concentrated sulfuric
acid forms carbon monoxide gas, Highly toxic, boiling with dilute acids forms
cyanide gas, Highly toxic, Mixtures with nitrite salts are explosive. |
| Potassium hydrogen carbonate | KHCO3, potassium bicarbonate, (impure potassium bicarbonate
"American saleratus"), colourless, odourless, white granules, r.d. 2.17,
(used in buffers, baking powder, aerated waters, antacid medicines, carbon
dioxide fire extinguishers, some detergents, laboratory reagent), occurs
as calcinite. |
| Potassium hydrogen phosphate | K2HPO4, di-potassium hydrogen phosphate (V),
di-potassium monohydrogen phosphate, di-potassium hydrogen orthophosphate,
food additive, buffering agent, culture nutrient |
| Potassium hydrogen tartrate | HOOC(CHOH)2COOK, (KHC4H4O7),
cream of tartar, tartar, (beeswing), acid potassium tartrate, potassium
bitartrate, white crystalline acid salt, purified form of brown crystals
argol, (used in baking powder, from deposits in wine vats, the "crust" in
crusted port that has finally fermented in the bottle). |
| Potassium hydroxide |
KOH, "caustic potash", lye, potash, white pellets,
KOH "sticks" or rods in water, lumps, flakes, sticks, very deliquescent,
absorbs CO2 and SO2 from air better than sodium
hydroxide because more soluble, used to prepare soft soap and alkaline storage
cells, heat from dissolving in water, r.d. 2.044, m.p. 380oC, E525,
potassium lye, damages eyes and body tissues. KOH, solid, flake, pellets, 1 M analytical reagent, caustic potash, Potassium hydroxide, as a solid or concentrated solution is extremely corrosive to the skin and eyes. Always wear safety glasses when handling potassium hydroxide, even with dilute concentrations. If potassium hydroxide enters the eye, rinse the eye instantly with water. Solutions of potassium hydroxide on the skin feel soapy because fats in the skin are broken down to form anions of fatty acids, e.g. stearate, palmitate and oleate, that give the solution a slippery feel. When potassium hydroxide dissolves in water, a large amount of heat is released, sometimes causing the solution to boil violently if it has not been stirred. So, always stir solutions in which potassium hydroxide is dissolving to dissipate heat and to provide a uniform concentration throughout the solution. Potassium hydroxide solutions boil at a higher temperature than pure water. Hygroscopic so keep in sealed plastic container, More corrosive to eyes than acids. |
| Potassium iodate (V) | KIO3, potassium iodate, white, monoclinic crystals or
granules, slightly deliquescent, r.d. 3.89, m.p. 560oC, oxidizing
agent, (ingredient of iodized "table salt", analytical reagent), store
out of light, ( potassium iodate is potassium salt of iodic acid), May
ignite with combustibles or organic compounds and produce toxic fumes.
Violent reaction with aluminium, magnesium, carbon, sulfur, phosphorus. Violent
reaction with sodium bisulfite if water added. Forms toxic fumes with concentrated
sulfuric acid. |
| Potassium iodide |
KI, colourless solution, white crystals or granules, r.d. 3.12, m.p.
698oC, slightly deliquescent in moist air, bitter taste, can
be separated form potassium iodate by fractional crystallization, becomes
yellow when iodine lost to air, (chemical analysis, photography, additive
to prepare iodized "table salt" to iodine deficiency, e.g. goitre), (in
tincture of iodine medicine, solvent for iodine to form the brown triiodide
ion I3-, KI3 (aq), used as a test for starch).
Detects presence of Pb2+ ions when yellow precipitate of lead
iodide forms. If KI solutions become yellow from iodine formation add sodium
hydrogen sulfite solution to make solution colourless again. |
| Potassium permanganate | KMnO4, potassium manganate (VII) (OXD 1490), Condy's crystals, 0.2 M, 0.02 M, analytical reagent, purple-red crystals, dark purple, bronze with metallic sheen, odourless, rhombic crystals, r.d. 2.7, heat decomposes, distinct sweet bitter taste, common strong oxidizing agent and disinfectant, chemistry analytical reagent, MnO4- ion. Potassium permanganate is a powerful oxidizing agent which forms dangerously combustible or even explosive mixtures with oxidizable materials or combustible materials: red phosphorus, cyanides, thiosulfates acetates, sugar, charcoal, sulfur, phosphorus, ammonium salts, active metal powders, organic compounds. The solid is also spontaneously flammable on contact with glycerine, ethylene glycol and other organic compounds. It forms violently explosive manganese heptoxide on mixing with concentrated sulfuric acid. Oxygen gas is formed on heating the solid, but toxic fine particles of manganese oxides are produced simultaneously; if the reaction is carried out in a test tube, place a plug of glass wool in the end of the tube to trap particles. Do not use sulfuric acid for drying oxygen gas from decomposition of potassium permanganate, since the acid could accidentally mix with the salt and react explosively. For preparing oxygen gas, it is safer to use hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate, or hydrogen peroxide with manganese dioxide catalyst. If potassium permanganate is used for preparation of chlorine gas by reaction with hydrochloric acid, be sure that the solid is covered with a layer of water and that hydrochloric acid is used, NOT sulfuric acid. Acidified solutions are used as an oxidant in organic chemistry for the oxidation of aldehydes or alcohols. Neutral solutions are used to distinguish between alkanes and alkenes. Dilute aqueous solutions of potassium permanganate are relatively harmless and have been used medicinally for mouth-washes and bactericides. Potassium manganate (VII) is not a primary standard so make up an approximate concentration and titrate it against a n ethanoic acid solution of known concentration. Potassium manganate (VII) crystals are so dark it is difficult to see if all have dissolved when making up a solution. Bottles of potassium manganate (VII) solution may have a brown precipitate around the top of manganese (IV) oxide formed when manganate (VII) ions react with water in the air. |
| Potassium nitrate |
KNO3, "saltpetre", "saltpeter", (occurs as nitre, niter,
Bengali saltpetre), colourless, odourless, trigonal or rhombic crystals or
white granules, r.d. 2.11, m.p. 333oC, Preservative E252, strong
oxidizing agent that decomposes at 400oC to lose O2,
(nitrate of potash fertilizer, fireworks, food preservative, explosives,
e.g. gunpowder), E252. Potassium nitrate is a powerful oxidizing agent and
forms explosive mixtures with most combustible materials. Potassium nitrate
has relatively low toxicity, and can be safely used in aqueous solution.
Do not mix potassium nitrate with charcoal, sulfur, red phosphorus or active
metals, e.g. Na, powdered Al, Mg, cyanides, sulfides, thiosulfates, ammonium
salts, acetates, household sugar or combustible material because these mixtures
may be are explosive. The demonstration of explosives is not permitted in
schools. If testing production of oxygen from heated solid and lighted splint
is accidentally dropped into molten salt, explosion may occur. Gunpowder,
(black powder, black gunpowder), a mixture of of potassium nitrate, charcoal
and sulfur, the explosive propellant formerly used in forearms now superseded
for modern firearms by by smokeless powder, a mixture of potassium salts. |
| Potassium nitrite |
KNO2, white to yellow deliquescent solid, m.p. 440oC,
explodes above 600oC, used to detect presence of amino groups
inorganic compounds, reacts with acids to form toxic nitrogen dioxide gas
that reacts with oxygen in the air to form highly toxic nitrogen dioxide
gas. |
| Potassium sodium tartrate-4-water | KNaC4H4O6.4H2O, double
salt sodium potassium tartrate, potassium sodium tartrate, potassium sodium
2, 3-dihydroxybutanedioate, Rochelle salt, Seignette's salt, Seidlitz powder,
saline cooling taste, piezoelectric. |
| Potassium sulfate |
K2SO4, sulfate of potash fertilizer, E515, white
crystalline powder, prepared with potassium carbonate or potassium hydroxide
with sulfuric acid, fertilizer as source of potassium iron instead of KCl
for chlorine-sensitive plants. |
| Potassium sulfide | K2S, liver of sulfur, sulfurated potash, red-yellow to brown-red, deliquescent, analytical reagent and epilatory, (depilatory), dusts may explode. |
| Potassium thiocyanate |
KCNS, colourless prisms, r.d. 1.89, m.p. about 173oC,
deliquescent |
| Schiff reagent |
Mixture of fuchsine and sodium bisulfite or sulfurous
acid to decolorize it that forms red-violet (magenta-purple) colour in unknown
solution as test for aldehydes, called "Schiff's test". |
| Silica | SiO2, silicon (IV) oxide, silicon oxide, silicon dioxide,
E551, quartz sand, (Silica gel desiccant is hygroscopic amorphous hydrated
silica + CoCl2, self-indicating moisture test, e.g. "Tell-Tale"),
powder used a non-reactive bulking material in medical tablets. |
| Silver chloride |
silver (I) chloride, AgCl, white solid, cerargyrite, horn silver, kerargyrite, occurs in silver veins, dissolves in ammonia solution, (photography emulsions, pottery glaze), expensive! |
| Silver nitrate |
AgNO3, large, odourless, transparent, rhombic crystals
or small white crystals, lunar caustic sticks for cauterizing, r.d. 4.35,
m.p. 212oC, water-soluble, becomes dark with organic matter,
test for halogens, store in dark-coloured dropping bottle in a cool dark
place. Use Tollen's reagent to demonstrate the reduction of silver nitrate
solution by formic acid to form a mirror on the inside of the test-tube. Forms explosive mixtures with combustibles, e.g. sulfur, phosphorus, ethanol, metal powders. Used in redox reactions, metal displacement reactions, testing for chloride ions, preparation of Tollen's reagent. |
| Soda lime |
Tests for CO2, (if off-white: active, if violet: exhausted),
For anaesthetics, the pH indicator ethyl violet is added to tell whether
the soda lime can still absorb carbon dioxide. The critical pH is 10.3. It
turns from colourless to violet. It is a mixture of sodium hydroxide and
calcium hydroxide prepared by dissolving calcium oxide with sodium hydroxide
solution. |
| Sodium benzoate |
C6H5COONa, sodium benzenecarboxylate, food preservative against yeast and bacteria but may cause cirrhosis, damage DNA and and increase ageing, effective pH 2.5 to 4.2, dyes, antiseptic. |
| Sodium carbonate |
Na2CO3.10H2O sodium carbonate decahydrate,
washing soda, sodium carbonate crystals, soda crystals, soda ash, sal soda,
crystal carbonate, black ash, trona, E500 white, colourless or white crystals, odourless powder, hygroscopic,
readily soluble in water to form strong alkaline solution, not decomposed by heat, (also
anhydrous sodium carbonate, soda ash anhydrous, Na2CO3,
soda ash is commercial sodium carbonate), r.d. 2.53, m.p. 851oC, used in glass production, softens "hard" water, used to removes grease,
constituent of washing powders and bath salts, over half of the weight of
the crystals is water because of the water of crystallization. If solution
left on the skin it may produce blisters. |
| Sodium chlorate | NaClO3, white solid, crystalline, bleach,
weed killer, Oxidizing (OXD 1495), Forms violently explosive mixtures with
combustibles, organic compounds, ammonium compounds, sulfur, sulfides and
finely divided metals, that may detonate as a result of friction, contact
with strong acids by ignition. Sodium chlorate with concentrated sulfuric
acid forms chlorine dioxide gas, unstable. Wood soaked in sodium chlorate
become explosive. |
| Sodium chloride | NaCl, white, cubic crystals, (colourless if large),
or granules, r.d. 2.17, m.p. 804oC,
common salt, table salt, sodium chloride technical grade, rock salt, halite
mineral, sea salt, brine, salt, white cubic crystals, not hygroscopic
if pure, for chemistry experiments use "uniodised" table salt, dissolves
readily in water to form a neutral solution often called brine. Used for
cooking and flavouring and food preservative, making butter, curing
fish, and manufacturing important chemicals, e.g. like washing soda. chlorinating
swimming pools, animals lick natural salt or artificial blocks of salt from
a salt lick. Essential in diet and supplement needed after excessive dehydration
and sweating, but high intake cause of high blood pressure, stroke, heart
disease. |
| Sodium citrate | Na3C6H5O7.2H2O,
basic, crystalline, trisodium citrate, trisodium-2-hydroxypropane-1, 2,
3-tricarboxy, (food buffer), E331. |
| Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (V) | NaH2PO4, sodium dihydrogen orthophosphate,
monosodium orthophosphate, also monohydrate NaH2PO4.H2O
and dihydrate NaH2PO4.2H2O, white, odourless,
rhombic crystals, insoluble in alcohol, slightly deliquescent, anhydrous
at 100oC, in baking powder, food additive, buffers, E339. |
| Sodium hydrogen carbonate |
NaHCO3, sodium bicarbonate, baking soda, bicarbonate of
soda, bicarb, bicarb soda, soda, carb soda, soda lye, (saleratus, "aerated
salt", "Dwight's saleratus"), white, odourless monoclinic crystals or granules,
alkaline salt, r.d. 2.16 - 2.22, (occurs naturally in soda lakes, soda beds),
decomposes to lose CO2, forms sodium carbonate above 50oC,
(penetrates stains and dissolves grease), (leavening agent used in: antacids,
baking powders, cream of tartar mixes, bath salts, burn treatment, cow and cattle feed, degreasers,
denture cleaning, deodorizers, effervescing health
salts, e.g. ,Alka Seltzer fire extinguishers, general cleaners, general
neutralizers, kitchen and bathroom cleaners, paint stripping, self-raising
flour, soils contaminated with PCBs, toothpaste). Baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate, bicarbonate of soda, baking powder) is used in cooking to form bubbles of carbon dioxide to expand bread dough, cake mix and pastry dough, to make them light and pleasant to eat. Commercial baking powders often contain a solid acid that reacts with the sodium hydrogen carbonate only when moist. Sodium bicarbonate is a soft white powder that dissolves to a small extent in cold water. It is decomposed by hot water to form a very weak alkali. It turns red litmus blue, but is too weak an alkali to affect phenolphthalein. |
| Sodium hydrogen
sulfate |
anhydrous, NaHSO4, nitre cake, sodium bisulfate,
swimming pool acid, (COR 1821), Sodium hydrogen sulfate monohydrate, NaHSO4.H2O,
deliquescent. white crystals, very soluble in water to form acid solution, deliquescent crystals when exposed to air to eventually form a solution so keep crystals in stoppered container, can be a substitute for dilute sulfuric acid in some experiments, preparation requires use of concentrated sulfuric acid so use crushed solid sodium hydrogen sulfate, the solid and the solution are corrosive so handle with care and avoid spills. If spill occurs, wipe up spilled material immediately with a wet cloth and neutralize any remaining acid with dilute ammonia or baking soda until no longer an acid reaction with blue litmus paper. |
| Sodium hydrogen sulfite |
NaHSO3, sodium bisulfite, deliquescent, white
solid but dissolves in water to form yellow solution, with heat decomposed
to form sodium sulfate, sulfur dioxide and sulfur so is used to sterilize
wine casks and other containers in brewing industry. If KI solutions become
yellow from iodine formation, add sodium hydrogen sulfite solution to make
solution colourless again. |
| Sodium hydroxide |
NaOH, solid, white rods, pellets, pearl, flakes, lumps, granules,
very hygroscopic and absorbs CO2 from air, r.d. 2.13, m.p. about
318oC, caustic soda, soda, soda lye, white caustic, caustic drain
cleaner 5% caustic soda, E524 (emulsifier), 1.22 gm cm-3,
cakes if stored for long period, a caustic alkali, pH solution >10, soap
making, rayon and paper industry, (used in experiments for reaction of oxides
of period 3 elements and analytical reagent, preparing soap and making paper,
cleaning cookers and removing old paint), very dangerous to eyes, release
heat when dissolved in water, must be pure white colour to be pure sodium
hydroxide, store in a bottle with a tightly fitting cork or rubber stopper,
not glass stoppers or metal screw caps which tend to become cemented to the
glass, solid or solution must not be be handled because it destroys skin
and causes painful blisters, also corrodes clothing. Treat accidental splashes
with plenty of water, then neutralize with vinegar, citric acid or
tartaric acid. Test the part affected with red litmus paper until it fails
to turn blue. Always use in dilute solution. |
| Sodium hypochlorite |
NaOCl (aq), sodium chlorate (I), domestic bleach, bleaching fluid, e.g. Chloros, oxidizing agent,
12.5% solution, chlorox, liquid bleach, colourless, strong odour, heat
decomposes, (4% Cl2), solution, (store below 25oC),
(household bleach, domestic bleach, 5% NaOCl, bleaching fluid, disinfecting
sinks and drains), chlorine
water, chloride of soda, chlorine bleach, water treatment of swimming pools.
NaOCl (aq) bleach evolves chlorine gas, which is highly irritant to the
lungs. If acid is added to bleach, large amounts of chlorine are produced.
The mixture becomes hot and may boil violently. Do not add concentrated
ammonia to bleach. Under some circumstances, nitrogen trichloride (NCl3)
forms. This is a violently unstable liquid, liable to explode without apparent
reason. NaOCl can bleach materials like flower petals, leaves and human
hair. NaOCl is a good source of chlorine gas for other experiments. Add
dilute hydrochloric acid from a dropping funnel to bleach solution in a
conical flask fitted with a rubber stopper and gas collection system. Keep
sodium hydroxide solution nearby to stop the reaction. Sodium hypochlorite
does not exist in solid form. A very weak solution may be sold as a gargle, e.g.,
Milton, but strong solutions are poisonous.
|
| Sodium nitrate |
NaNO3, sodium nitrate (V), nitrate of soda, soda nitre,
Chile saltpetre, nitratine, saltpetre, E251 (meat preservative, colour
fixative), colourless, odourless, transparent, trigonal crystals or white
granules, r.d. 2.26, m.p. 308oC, deliquescent in moist air,
Chile saltpetre from caliche deposits, Chile nitre, (agricultural fertilizer),
E251. |
| Sodium nitrite |
NaNO2, sodium nitrate (III) white to yellow rhombic crystals
or granules, r.d. 2.17, m.p. 271oC, hygroscopic granules, (inhibits
corrosion), E250. Sodium nitrite with acids forms nitrogen dioxide gas,
toxic. Sodium nitrite with phenol, ammonium salts, thiosulfates, cyanides
forms explosive explosive mixtures. |
| Sodium perborate |
Strong oxidizing agent, for non-chlorine bleach detergents, monohydrate NaBO3.H2O, tetrahydrate salt crystals NaBO3.4H2O (algaecide in swimming pools). |
| Sodium silicate |
Na2SiO3
solution, water glass, soluble glass glassy solid usually sold in strong
solution as a thick syrupy liquid that dissolves in water to form an alkaline
solution.Water glass solidifies on exposure to the air. Used as egg preservative, fireproofing fabrics, fresco base. |
| Sodium sulfate |
Na2SO4.10H2O,
crystalline sodium sulfate decahydrate, mirabilite mineral, hydrated, white
efflorescent crystals that dissolve in water to from a neutral solution,
Glauber's salt, sal mirabile, cake, mirabilite, mirabilitum,
purgative medicine, E514, (Sodium sulfate anhydrous Na2SO4, white hygroscopic
powder, r.d. 2.67, m.p. 888oC), (glauberite mineral, Na2Ca(SO4)2,
has a bitter and salty taste). (J. R. Glauber 1604-1668, Netherlands) |
| Sodium sulfite |
Na2SO3.7H2O, hydrated, sodium sulfate (IV)-7-water, E221, (Sodium sulfite anhydrous, Na2SO3, white hexagonal crystals or powder, r.d. 2.63, alkaline in water). |
| Sodium thiosulfate-5-water |
Sodium thiosulfate-5-water, Na2S2O3.5H2O,
("hypo", sodium hyposulfite), sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate, sodium thiosulfate
hydrated, Harmful if ingested, colourless, odourless, monoclinic colourless crystals which
dissolve in water to form a neutral solution or white granules, r.d. 1.69,
m.p. 48oC,
efflorescent in dry air, sodium hyposulfite is deliquescent in moist air.
Used in photography for the process of “ fixing “, i.e. dissolving the silver
bromide of the exposed plate or film. |
| Sulfuric acid |
H2SO4, oleum, fuming sulfuric acid, vitriol or oil of vitriol is
concentrated H2SO4, clear, colourless, heavy oily liquid,
very hygroscopic, conc. 18 M, r.d. about 1.84, 18 mol per mL, r.d. fuming
H2SO4: 1.92 gm cm-3, (for accumulators),
battery acid r.d. 1.25 gm cm-3, E513, dilute H2SO4,
3 M, store in cool place. Pure sulfuric acid is called concentrated sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid reacts violently with water to form hydrated hydrogen ions and hydrated sulfate ions. So the concept of dilution with water is inappropriate for the concentrated acid because a vigorous chemical reaction occurs that releases much heat. Do not add water to concentrated sulfuric acid. Dilute sulfuric acid by adding the acid slowly to water with continuous stirring. Wear eye protection when handling concentrated sulfuric acid. Water is less dense than sulfuric acid and will layer itself on top of the acid. At the acid / water interface, heat is generated by reaction of acid with water. This causes the water just above the interface to become very hot. When a suitable nucleating particle or surface is found, a large steam bubble forms, the middle section of the container boils suddenly and hot acid / water mixture is ejected from the container, often travelling several metres and causing serious chemical burns. If, the acid is slowly poured into water with stirring, the same amount of heat is liberated, but the boiling point of the solution is much higher than 100oC because of the presence of the sulfuric acid. The temperature of the solution may rise to 150oC, but boiling still does not occur. Sulfuric acid is highly corrosive to the skin and eyes. Wash sulfuric acid off the skin immediately with a large volume of water. A small amount of water simply brings about the acid water reaction and liberation of a great amount of heat, causing the remaining sulfuric acid to be even more corrosive. Hot sulfuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent and will cause organic materials, e.g. skin, to turn black because of the removal of water, leaving a residue of carbon. Sulfuric acid is not volatile, so neither the pure acid nor its solutions release vapour. However strong heating of the acid may cause decomposition and boiling to form an aerosol of sulfuric acid droplets and sulfur dioxide gas that must not be inhaled. Sulfuric acid forms a spontaneously explosive mixture with potassium permanganate to form liquid manganese heptoxide. Similarly sulfuric acid forms a spontaneously explosive mixture with chlorate salts where gaseous chlorine dioxide forms. Dilute sulfuric acid solutions are far less dangerous than the concentrated acid because they do not dehydrate or reducing materials and do not form much heat when further diluted. Use sulfuric acid from motor car batteries if it is first diluted with water to four times its volume (remember acid to water!), but sulfuric acid collected from lead-acid batteries will be contaminated with lead. Poisonous and corrosive if left on clothes. In in many experiments a solution of sodium hydrogen sulfate, (sodium bisulfate), can be used instead of sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid dissolves most metals but not copper. dissolves metal oxides, including copper oxide, is neutralized by alkalis, e.g. ammonia solution and forms carbon dioxide gas from metal carbonates and bicarbonates. Sulfuric acid was formerly manufactured by heating iron (II) sulfate crystals so it was called “oil of vitriol,” a name which is still used for it today. |
| Tartaric acid | (CHOHCOOH)2, (CHOH)2(COOH)2, C4H6O6,
racemic acid, 2, 3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid, colourless, odourless, transparent,
monoclinic crystals, or white granules, r.d. 1.76, m.p. 168 to 170oC
E334, from potassium hydrogen tartrate, sour taste food flavour, in wine and
fruits, e.g. tamarind, tartrate salts, from potassium tartrate, tartar. Tartaric
acid is a white crystalline substance manufactured from grape juice.
It is very weak acid is commonly used as an ingredient in effervescing
health salts and its salt, potassium hydrogen tartrate (cream of tartar),
is used in baking powder. Tartaric acid has similar chemical actions to citric
acid in that it liberates carbon dioxide gas from carbonates and bicarbonates,
and it forms hydrogen when warmed with iron filings or zinc. |
| Tin (II) chloride |
SnCl2.2H2O, stannous chloride, butter of tin, colourless, monoclinic crystals, absorbs O2 from air to form insoluble stannous oxychloride, r.d. 2.71, m.p. 37 to 38oC, Also anhydrous tin chloride, SnCl2. |
| Titanium (IV) oxide | TiO2, titanium dioxide, colour white, opacifer, "white
out" correction fluid, white pigments for tennis shoes, white paint, from
mineral rutile, ilmenite FeTiO3, food additive, E171, the 3 mineral
forms are anatase, brookite and rutile |
| 1,1,1-trichloroethane | CH3CCl3, (E512), methyl chloroform, grease solvent, safer alternative to tetrachloromethane, (carbon tetrachloride, CCl4). Solvent in "white-out" correction fluids banned in many school systems. Ozone-depleting chemical being phased out of use. Mixed with active metals, e.g. Na, Mg, Al, forms metal chloride and carbon in highly exothermic reaction. Substitute non-chlorinating solvents, e.g. acetone or ethanol. |
| Trichloromethane | CHCl3, chloroform, colourless, mobile, clear,
sweet taste liquid, distinct odour, Not inflammable, vapour in flame may
form poisonous gases, b.p. 61oC, store dark, cool place, former
anaesthetic, solvent. |
| Trisodium phosphate
(V) |
Na3PO4.12H2O, sodium orthophosphate,
"sodium phosphate", tribasic, trisodium orthophosphate, "TSP", colourless
to white odourless, trigonal crystals, (sodium phosphate decahydrate Na3PO4.10H2O),
(sodium phosphate dodecahydrate Na3PO4.12H2O),
r.d. 1.6, m.p. about 73oC, acidity regulator, food buffer, thickener
E339. |
| Zinc oxide | ZnO, white to yellow, amorphous powder, r.d. 5.47, m.p. above 1 800oC,
white pigment, zincite, white zinc, zinc white, Chinese white, spartalite,
craft, zinc sun cream medicine and other skin problems. |
| Zinc sulfate |
ZnSO4.7H2O, colourless, odourless, white rhombic
crystals or powder, r.d. 1.97, m.p. about 50oC, efflorescent
in dry air, anhydrous at 200oC, decomposes above 500oC,
white vitriol, zinc vitriol, white copperas, gosla rite, in zinc deficiency
medicines |