School Science Lessons
Electronics 1 Experiments
2009-05-18
Please send comments to: J.Elfick@uq.edu.au
Table of contents
See also: UNPh39 UNESCO Electronics Teacher's Guide, School Science Lessons
38.1.00 Valves
38.1.01 Discharge of a condenser uses a high resistance
38.1.02 Condensers can pass alternating current but not direct current
38.1.03 Choke coils affects both AC and d.c.
38.1.04 Diode valve
38.1.05 Diode in a battery charger
38.1.06 Triode valve
38.1.07 Germanium diode as a rectifier
38.1.08 Radio transmission and reception
38.1.09 Semiconductor instead of diode valve
38.1.10 Show discharge of capacitors with a neon tube
38.1.11 Cathode rays, Cathode ray tube, CRT, cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
38.1.12 Simple discharge tube
38.1.13 Simple chemical rectifier
38.1.14 Bridge rectifier
38.1.15 Transformer
38.1.16 Triode circuits
38.1.17 Move a bar magnet near a black and white television screen
38.2.00 Semiconductors
38.2.01 Electronics circuits
38.2.02 Soldering for electronic circuits
38.2.03 Resistors
38.2.04 Capacitors (formerly "condenser"), capacitance in an a.c. circuit
38.2.04.1 Electrolytic capacitor
38.2.04.2 Tantalum bead capacitors
38.2.04.3 Polyester capacitor
38.2.04.4 Variable Capacitor
38.2.05 Earphones, crystal microphones
38.2.1 P-type and N-type semiconductors
38.2.2 Diodes
38.2.2.1 Zener diodes
38.2.2.2 Light-emitting diode, LED
38.2.2.2.1 Seven-segment display
38.2.2.3 Test circuits using an LED
38.2.3 Diode as a half-wave rectifier
38.2.3.1 Smoothing
38.2.3.2 AC to d.c. motor
38.2.4 Full-wave rectification
38.3.1 Transistors
38.3.1.1 NPN transistors
38.3.1.2 PNP transistors
38.3.2 Transistor as a switch
38.3.2.1 Transistor as a switch with potential divider
38.3.3 Transistor as a current amplifier
38.3.4 Transistor as a voltage amplifier
38.3.5 Light dependent resistor, LDR, photocell, photoelectric sensor
38.3.6 Thermistor
38.3.7 Silicon-controlled rectifier, SCR, thyristor
38.3.8 Light-dependent diode, LDD
38.4.1 Capacitor charge and discharge
38.4.2 Capacitor charge and discharge with cathode ray oscilloscopes, CRO
38.5.00 Switching circuits
Acknowledgement: Topic 38.500 Switching circuits topics were edited by Mr Brian Clarke.
Please send comments to: brianclarke01@optusnet.com.au
Manually operated switches
38.5.001 Switching off
38.5.001.1 Switching off a d.c. circuit connecting only resistance is easy
38.5.001.2 Switching off a d.c. circuit connecting an inductance is not easy.
38.5.002 Switches in a motor vehicle ignition system
38.5.002.1 Coil ignition system in motor vehicles, "points"
38.5.002.2 Coil ignition system in motor vehicles, capacitor across the distributor points
38.5.002.3 Effect of switching an AC circuit
38.5.002.4 Coil ignition system in motor vehicles - high voltage at the opening of the contacts
38.5.002.5 Switching a car headlight bulb
38.5.003 Switches in motor vehicle ignition system
38.5.003.1 Switches in series
38.5.003.2 Switches in parallel
38.5.01 Relays, magnetically operated switches, "make-and-break"
38.5.02 Latching relay circuit, bistable \ flip-flop
38.5.03 Reed switch, reed relay, "make-and-break"
38.5.1 Heat-operated switching circuit, fire alarm
38.5.2 Light operated switching circuit, light dark indicator, lamp on in the dark, automatic street light
38.5.3 Moisture detector, water indicator
38.5.4 Sound operated switching circuit with latching, microphone, burglar alarm
38.5.4.1 High-speed flash photography
38.5.5 Transistor amplifier, with 1. magnetic earphone, 2. crystal earphone
38.5.6 Time operated switching circuit
38.5.7 Flashing circuit
38.5.8 Automatic lighting control, front steps light
38.5.9 Time delay
38.5.9.1 Seat belt warning
39.5.9.2 Headlights ON warning
38.5.9.3 Traffic lights
38.5.9.4 Two-tone police siren
38.5.9.5 Room air conditioning
38.6.00 Radio waves, radio frequency, AC, signal pulses, frequency bands VHF, telecommunications, radio receivers, crystal set, transistor amplifier
38.6.01 Frequency modulated, FM, amplitude modulated, AM, signal
38.6.00 Radio receivers, crystal set, transistor amplifiers, piezoelectric crystal quartz
38.6.01 UHF radio wave generator
38.6.01 Photovoltaic cells (PV), applications, unit electricity cost
38.6.01 Frequency modulated, FM, amplitude modulated, AM, signal
38.6.02 Wave antenna \ aerial receivers, earth, ferrite rod aerial concentrates radio waves with two coils of fine wire
38.6.02 Radio direction finder loop aerial,
38.6.02 Superheterodyne receivers, static, howl, hum, noises
38.6.03 Amplifier, woofer and tweeter, feedback
38.6.03 Gramophone, pickup, hi-fi, graphic equalizer
38.6.03 Microphone, acoustic feedback, "scream", loudspeaker
38.6.04 Telemetry
38.6.04 Facsimile transmission (fax)
38.6.04 Telephone, cellular telephone
38.6.06 Communication satellites
38.6.01 Electronic flash
38.6.01 Analogue digital converter
38.6.01 Fibre optics, total internal reflection
38.6.01 Holography, hologram slide
38.6.01 Astable circuits, pulser circuit
38.6.01 Inverter voltage amplifier
38.6.01 Decade
38.7.00 Computer, processor, microprocessor, central processing Unit (CPU), peripherals, mainframe
38.7.00 PC DRAM chip, microprocessor, hard disk drive, floppy disk drive
38.7.01.1 Logic gates
38.7.01 Computer program, integrated circuit, computer applications, databases,
38.7.01 Hardware, disk, keyboard, peripheral devices, mouse, printer, plotter
38.7.01 Memory unit RAM and ROM memory
38.7.01 Monitor, visual Display Unit (VDU)
38.7.03.1 Bits and bytes, kilobyte, K, megabyte, MB, binary counter,
38.7.03.2 Decimal and binary codes for numbers 0 to 25
38.7.03.3 Addition of binary numbers
38.7.03.4 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Exchange)
38.8.04 Light pen
38.8.04 Communications network, local area networks, LAN
38.8.04 Modem, digital to analogue modem, modulator demodulator
38.8.05 Scanning, OCR
38.8.06 Bar code
38.9.0 Modern physics
38.9.1 Quantum effects
38.9.2 Photoelectric effect
38.9.3 Millikan oil drop
38.9.4 Compton effect
38.9.5 Wave mechanics
38.9.6 Particle / wave duality
38.9.7 X-ray and electron diffraction
38.9.8 Condensed matter
38.9.9 Atomic physics
38.9.10 Spectra
38.9.11 Absorption
38.9.12 Resonance radiation
38.9.13 Fine splitting
38.9.14 Ionization potential
38.9.15 Electron properties
38.9.16 Atomic models
38.9.17 Nuclear physics
38.9.18 Radioactivity
38.9.19 Nuclear reactions
38.9.20 Particle detectors
38.9.21 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NKr)
38.9.22 Models of the nucleus
38.9.23 Relativity
38.9.24 Special relativity
38.9.25 General relativity
38.9.26 Elementary particles
38.1.00 Valves
See diagram 38.1.00: Electronics symbols - valves
(Comment: Transistors are seldom drawn this way nowadays.) (Comment: Valves require voltages that can be dangerous. Nowadays valves are still used only in special applications, e.g. in high powered radio and television stations, older models of spot welders, RF welding of plastic bags and microwave ovens.)
38.1.01 Discharge of a condenser using a high resistance
See diagram 38.1.01
Use a 100 000 ohm resistor and capacitor with C = 1 muF to 100 muF. For higher capacities use electrolytic condensers. Charge the condenser by joining X to Z. Then discharge the condenser by joining X to Y. The movement of the pointer of the microammeter will show the rate of discharge. The rate varies with the capacity of the condenser. (Comment: muF is a most unusual notation)
38.1.02 Condensers can pass alternating current but not direct current
See diagram 38.1.02
Use the changes in brightness of the torch globe to show changes in current. Vary the voltages from 4 to 6 volts by using a variable voltage power pack delivering both AC and d.c.
38.1.03 Choke coils affects both AC and d.c.
See diagram 38.1.03
A choke is an inductor that slows changes of electric current and opposes the flow of this changing current. An inductor has the same effect on an alternating current as a resistor has on a direct current. In a radio circuit, you can use an inductor to oppose the flow of high or low frequency current and permit the passage of direct current only. Use the primary coil of a soldering iron transformer. The lamp glows brightly with d.c. but not with a.c.
38.1.04 Diode valve
See diagram 38.1.04
A radio valve has two electrodes, so you call it a diode. A heated filament loses electrons by thermionic emission. When you connect the filament electrode to the negative terminal of a variable voltage power pack delivering both AC and d.c. and connect the other electrode, the anode, to the positive terminal, an electric current flows between the electrodes. Connect the type AV 33 diode valve in the circuit. The filament heated by a 4 volt battery supplies the electrons so you call it the cathode being negative with respect to the other electrode, the anode. If the cathode circuit is " broken " so that no electrons are emitted, there is in effect an open circuit in the valve so that current does not flow from the anode battery. If the anode circuit were " broken " instead of the cathode, the heated cathode would still emit electrons so that the filament battery would very soon be useless although current would not flow from the anode battery.
38.1.05 Diodes in a battery charger
See diagram 38.1.05
The diode valve in the circuit is acting as a rectifier.
Use a step down transformer to supply 12 volts. Note the smaller secondary winding to supply heat to the filament of the diode. The current in the secondary coils should alternate in the same way as in the primary coil. So in secondary coil AB, during one half of the cycle electrons should move from A to B and during the other half of the cycle electrons should move from B to A. However, the diode acts as a valve and only allows electrons to pass during half the cycle from the cathode filament to the anode.
38.1.06 Triode valve
See diagram 38.1.06
A triode valve has three electrodes, cathode, anode and grid, i.e. a screen of wires between the cathode and anode. The more negative the grid compared with the cathode, the smaller the anode current. Use a type AV 25 triode valve with an anode that fluoresces when electrons hit it. The diode valve should have a tungsten filament because it may be used in place of the AV 33 valve. Vary the grid voltage from -100 volts to +100 volts. Observe the size of the anode current. The extent of the fluorescence has not only indicated it, but it can be measured by means of a milli-ammeter placed in the anode circuit. Observe the effect of a bar magnet on the electron stream. The electric current is a flow of electrons that can be stopped by applying a negative voltage to the grid. Electrons travel from the cathode to the anode in straight lines so a sharp shadow of the grid can be formed on the anode. The stream of electrons may be deflected by a magnet.
38.1.07 Germanium diode as a rectifier
See diagram 38.1.07
Connect a low voltage AC to d.c. voltmeter. Use the secondary winding of either a bell transformer or a transformer designed for heating soldering irons is satisfactory. Note any movement of the pointer of the voltmeter. Switch off the AC supply then connect a germanium diode into he secondary circuit. Note any movement of the pointer of the voltmeter. Alternating current has been rectified by the germanium diode to produce a pulsating direct current. (Comment: The rectification action is fine for single frequency application, e.g. power supplies.)
38.1.08 Radio transmission and reception
See diagram 38.1.08
Heinrich Hertz is credited with being the first person to send and receive radio signals between 1885 and 1889. However, some people say it had been done twice before, in 1866 by Mahlon Loomis and in 1879 by David E Hughes.
Closely wind one hundred turns of 28 S.W.G. enamelled wire on a cardboard tube of approximate diameter 5 cm. If this coil that you call an inductor is tuned with a variable condenser of maximum capacity 0.0005 microfarad. Detect radio signals from your local transmitter by means of either the diode valve used previously or a germanium diode. An oscillator circuit produces alternating current at any frequency, but usually audio or radio frequencies. The function of the diode is to rectify the current oscillations, and to permit detection of the audio frequencies by the earpiece. By varying the inductance or capacity of such a circuit it is possible to receive broadcasts of different radio frequencies, i.e. from different radio stations, because the tuning circuit is made to resonate electrically with the frequency being received. (Comment: The function of the diode in radio reception: A diode is a non-linear device that has the property of being able to "mix" several frequencies. In mathematical terms this is "multiplying". The side band frequencies are being mixed with the carrier produced by the resonance of the LC circuit. One of the results of mixing is the original intelligence and elimination of the carrier.) Use a d.c. moving coil voltmeter with a full-scale deflection of 10 volts. On connecting it to a suitable source of AC there should be no deflection of the pointer. However, on connection to either a germanium or a silicon diode, a deflection should be observed because the diode which is a semi-conductor allows electrons to flow in one direction only. This is an example of half wave rectification as in 38.41.5. Replace the voltmeter in the circuit with a cathode ray oscillograph. Connect the leads to the vertical deflection plates to obtain patterns as in diagram 38.41.4. Suitable diodes include OA 2 10. Use a diode valve instead of a semi-conductor or use a triode or multigrid valve by joining the grid of the valve to the anode. The joined elements then act as the anode. Use a 12 AD 6 valve because it may be operated from a 12 volt supply. Connect the anode to one end of the secondary coil as in diagram 41.4 and the cathode to the voltmeter. Heat the cathode with car battery current and observe the voltmeter.
38.1.09 Semiconductor instead of diode valve
Use a semi-conductor as a detector instead of the diode valve. Use an aerial coil from a discarded radio receiver in place of the one described. If the leads from the diode and the junction of the coil and condenser are connected to the amplifier of a projector with a jack plug the class can listen to local radio transmission.
38.1.10 Show discharge of capacitors with a neon tube
See diagram 38.1.10
To show the ability of a capacitor to store electricity use its discharge through a neon lamp. A high resistance is connected in series with a source of potential difference and a neon lamp. Connect each condenser across the neon lamp in turn. The flashing of the lamp indicates the rate of discharge which depends on the capacity of the condenser.
38.1.11 Cathode rays, cathode ray tube CRT, cathode ray oscilloscope CRO
See diagram: 38.1.11: Cathode ray oscilloscope CRO | See diagram 38.1.11a: Johnson cathode ray tube
The CRO measures constant and varying voltage, both. It consists of a cathode ray tube and control circuits. An electrically heated cathode gives off negative charged electrons that are accelerated towards a positive anode by a large voltage. Electrodes between the cathode and anode control the intensity and focussing of the electrons, previously called cathode rays, that pass through a small hole in the anode. The beam of electrons emerging from the anode passes through a vertical electric field between two horizontal Y-plates to enable the electron beam to be deflected vertically. When the top plate is positive and the bottom plate is negative, the negative electron beam will be deflected upwards. The beam also passes through a horizontal electric field between two vertical X-plates. Controls connected to these plates cause the electron beam to be deflected horizontally. The beam then strikes a screen coated with a fluorescent material which gives out light when struck by electrons. To make a CRO, seal platinum wire into wide bore glass tubing, the main tube is now strongly heated and the heated fused glass pushed into the hole so that the end is completely sealed. The closed end is now alternately heated and blown until it is neatly rounded.
38.1.12 Simple discharge tube
See diagram 38.1.12
38.1.13 Simple chemical rectifier
See diagram 38.1.13
Put aluminium and lead electrodes in a saturated solution of borax (sodium tetraborate, Na2B4O7.10H2O) in a glass container. Connect to a low voltage AC supply from a transformer. A direct current flows from the lead to the aluminium. This is a half-wave rectifier and could be used as a battery charger. (Comment: I am not sure of the safety of making lead-aluminium-borax diodes.)
38.1.14 Bridge rectifier
Use four such cells as made in 38.1.13 can be used in a for a bridge rectifier.
38.1.15 Transformer
See diagram 38.1.15
1. Step up transformer: Supply 6 volts AC to d.c. and light a 12 volt lamp at AB.
2. Step down transformer: Supply 12 volts AC to AB, measuring the current in the AB turns. Take off six volts AC from CD to light up a large 6 volt lamp. Measure current with an ammeter. If the voltage drops by half, the current doubles. If the voltage doubles, the current halves. (Comment: This last sentence is "sort of O.K." but as an explanation of what happens if you drop the voltage of a primary transformer is incorrect.)
38.1.16 Triode circuits
See diagram 38.1.16
Circuits linking the anode and cathode of a triode and a battery connection to the grid:
1. The grid is not connected but some anode current exists.
2. The grid is more negative than the cathode. The anode current would be decreased.
3. The grid is more positive than the cathode. The anode current would be increased.
38.1.17 Move a bar magnet near a black and white television screen
The field of the bar magnet interacts with the magnetic field due to the stream of cathode rays so that the picture moves.
BE CAREFUL! DO NOT MOVE A BAR MAGNET NEAR A COLOUR TELEVISION SCREEN!
38.2.00 Semiconductors
Semiconductors have a resistivity between conductors and insulators. Their conductivity increases with temperature and is affected by impurities in their crystals. They are used in solid state devices, e.g. diodes and transistors. Silicon and Germanium, in group 4 of the periodic table, are commonly used.
38.2.1 P-type and N-type semiconductors
38.2.01 Electronics circuits
See diagram 38.2.00 Electronics symbols
Hardwiring means connecting the component leads with wire if there are only few components in the circuit. A bread board is a plastic sheet with holes for the component leads to be pushed in. Strip board has holes in parallel copper tracks. The components are soldered to the tracks to make circuits. Printed circuit boards (PCBs) for special circuits are made from sheets of copper attached to flat material with the copper are etched away to make tracks for the conductors between components instead of using wires. Components are soldered to the tracks to make complicated circuits in a small space. Earth or ground means direct connection to the earth or to a chassis or place of zero voltage.
38.2.02 Soldering for electronic circuits
Be careful! The soldering bit becomes very hot! Do not breath in the poisonous fumes from the solder! After handling solder, wash your hands!
Use side cutters with blades placed at one side to crop the ends off component leads after the components have been soldered to a piece of strip board or a printed circuit board (PCB), now called printed wiring boards because "PCB" also refers to carcinogenic chemicals. Use wire strippers on single core or stranded thin equipment wire when connecting off board components to the strip board or PCB, or when constructing a prototype circuit on breadboard. Use soldering irons with low wattage, preferable with silicone insulated cable fitted to prevent accidentally melting of the mains cable, and with a 4 mm bit. Use a soldering iron stand because the temperature of a soldering iron bit can reach 400ºC. Use a desoldering pump as a solder sucker to remove excess solder from a joint. Solder for electronics should be 22 swg 60% tin, 40% lead alloy, including a flux core. The melted flux cleans the component leads and strip board or PCB tracks. When first using a new soldering iron bit, "tin the bit" with solder by holding the solder against the bit as the iron heats up. Let the solder melt onto the bit and wipe off excess solder with a wet sponge. To solder a wire or component lead to strip board or a PCB, push the lead through the hole in the board with 5 mm of the lead protruding. Place the tip of the soldering iron at an angle against both the track and the lead and allow both to heat up. Feed the solder in around the track and it will run around the track and the lead if the track and the lead are hot enough. Remove the soldering iron. The solder joint should look shiny and have a pyramid shape. A dull looking joint, "dry joint", may be a weak joint due to using too much solder. If so remove the solder with the desoldering pump and try again. Remove excess wire or lead with the side cutters. To join two wires together, first "tin" to let solder melt onto each one wire, bring the tinned ends together, then heat again briefly. Integrated circuits (ICs, or microchips) and transistors may be damaged by the heat from during soldering. Integrated circuits should inserted into an IC holder and inserted on the board when soldering is completed. As transistors must be soldered directly to the board attach a crocodile clip to each lead before it is soldered to act as a "heat shunt" to absorb the heat during soldering. Heat shrinkable sleeving is used around wires joined to off board components to give the joint extra mechanical strength. (Comment: The by-products of soldering are lead and lead oxide particles. Flux fumes used to be corrosive and could damage the nasal passages and eyes. However, nowadays most fluxes are water based and relatively harmless but hey do not clean the surfaces so effectively so more lead-tin is consumed in hand soldering. Machine soldering is another matter. Some solders are non-lead solders. Other methods of connection include crimping, bolt and nut, and star washer, e.g. brass clamps of car battery terminals.)
38.2.03 Resistors
See diagram: Resistors colour code
A resistor in a circuit opposes the flow of electric current through it, allowing some current to flow, and changes the voltage drop following Ohm's Law. Resistor values include 1 k = 1 000 ohms and 1 M = 1 000 000 ohms. Usually, combinations of 1 k and 10 k are used in series and parallel for school experiments. The maximum error is called the tolerance value, usually 10% tolerance. If the power rating in Watts (W) is exceeded the resistor may be damaged. For school experiments usually 0.6 W resistors are suitable. A resistor colour code is used for fixed value they are so small. The four band colour code uses three coloured bands for the resistor's value, and another coloured band for the resistor's tolerance. The first two bands indicate the first two digits of the resistor's value. The third band indicate the number of zeros to be placed after the first two digits. The forth band indicates the resistor's tolerance as a percentage. The five band colour code uses the same colours as the four band system, but an extra band indicates another digit, and gold and silver bands indicate multipliers of X 0.1 and X 0.01. The five band system can indicate values lower than 1. The first three bands give the first three digits of the resistor's value. The fourth band indicates the number of zeroes to be places after the first three digits. The fifth band gives the resistor's tolerance as a percentage. A polarized component must be connected in a certain way for the circuit to operate. If reverse connected, damage may occur. Resistors are not polarized so they can be placed either way in the circuit. A potentiometer, variable resistor, is fixed resistor with a slide arm to select different resistances. It has three terminals, one terminal to each end of the resistance and one to the slide arm. Potentiometers may be polarized. (Comment: It is almost impossible to get 10% tolerance resisters nowadays - most are 5% or better. Other problems with resistors are the temperature effects and power dissipation.)
38.2.04 Capacitor (formerly "condenser"), capacitance in an a.c. circuit
Capacitors are made of layers of flat conductor separated by layers of insulator (dielectric), e.g. vacuum, waxed paper, mica, glass, plastic, air (for tuning high frequency oscillators). The capacity to hold charge, capacitance, is the ratio of total charge on the parallel plates / potential difference between the plates (volts). Capacitors store electrical energy. Capacitance is measured in farads. When you switch off the power to your computer the indicator lights keep glowing for a while because electrical energy is stored in capacitors in the computer. When charge builds upon a capacitor, a voltage develops across the capacitor which opposes the charging current. Voltage across the capacitor V = Q / C, where Q is the amount of charge in coulomb, and C is the capacitance in farad. The current leads the voltage by a quarter of a cycle, i.e. 90o. Capacitors store electric charge. Capacitance, in farads, symbol F, measures a capacitor's ability to store charge.
Prefixes show the smaller values:
1. mu (Greek letter), micro, 10-6, millionth (microfarads muF),
2. n, nano, 10-9, thousand millionth,
3. p, pico, 10-12, million millionth (picofarads pF).
 So 1000 muF = 1 F, 1000 nF = 1 muF, 1000 pF = 1 nF. Capacitors are polarized or unpolarized. Unpolarized capacitors, for less than 1 F, and may be connected with either polarity. They have high voltage ratings of 50 volts to 250 volts. They have different types of labels, e.g. 0.1 = 0.1 F = 100 nF, 4 n7 = 4.7 nF. Very small capacitors have a number code: First number is 1st digit of the value. Second number is 2nd digit of the value. Third number is the number of zeros to give capacitance in pF, e.g. 102 = 1000 pF = 1 nF, 472 J = 4700 pF = 4.7 nF, J = 5% tolerance. Capacitors are used in filter circuits because they pass AC (changing) signals but they block d.c. (constant) signals. The time constant measures the time for a capacitor to charge or discharge, with a certain resistor, so they are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes a known time for a capacitor to fill with charge. (Comment: The usual range of capacitors nowadays is 0.47 muF (microfarads) to 47 mF (millifarads). Capacitors for more than 1F are not made except to special order. 0.5 F and 0.68 F capacitors are found in some computer motherboards instead of the battery that was used to keep the CMOS-based BIOS memory alive. These capacitors are also used in some modern portable radio, TV tuner memories and high powered audio amplifiers in sporty motor vehicles.
Other experiments:
38.2.04.1 Electrolytic capacitor
38.2.04.2 Tantalum bead capacitors
38.2.04.3 Polyester capacitor
38.2.04.4 Variable Capacitor
38.2.04.1 Electrolytic capacitor
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized capacitors, for more than 1 F. They must be connected with correct polarity. Axial electrolytic capacitors have leads are attached to each end. Radial electrolytic capacitors have both leads are at the same end for use on printed circuit boards and to take less space. The value of electrolytic capacitors are printed on them showing capacitance and voltage rating, e.g. 6 volts. Electrolytic capacitors contain an electrolyte. If voltage rating is exceeded capacitor can be damaged. The capacitor should have with a rating greater than the circuit's power supply voltage, e.g. 25 volts.
38.2.04.2 Tantalum bead capacitors
Tantalum bead capacitors are used where a large capacitance, 0.1 muF to 100 muF, is needed in a small size and are usually polarized. Use in place of electrolytic capacitors of the same values. (Comment: Tantalum capacitors should NOT be used in place of electrolytics because electrolytics quite different design and application rules. Electrolytics operate best when close to their rated voltage but tantalums fail as a power of the applied voltage, so they are best used at small proportions of the rated voltage.)
38.2.04.3 Polyester capacitor
Polyester capacitors, called green caps, are used mainly in audio circuits. They have capacitance up to 0.001 uF, are not polarized and may have a colour code like the resistor code.
38.2.04.4 Variable Capacitor
Variable capacitors can be varied by moving a rotating shaft. Usually used with a tuning dial with the radio stations marked. The smaller "trimmer capacitors" from 1.5 pf to 160 pF are used with larger fixed value capacitor. The larger are used in transistor radios, used to tune different radio stations. (Comment: The physical size is related to the applied voltage. The capacitance is related to the operating frequency. So large variable capacitors are used in broadcast transmitters. Small variable capacitors are used in transistorized portable receivers. High capacity is used for low frequency. Small capacity is used for higher frequencies or as trimmers for larger capacitors.)
38.2.05 Earphones,  crystal microphones
See also: Piezoelectric crystals | See also: Impedance
Crystal earphones and crystal microphones use piezoelectric crystals to convert electrical voltage into sound waves. Crystal earphones have high impedance and are not polarized. The two way behaviour of piezoelectric crystals allow the crystal earphones to be used as a crystal microphone. Magnetic earphones and microphones use a coil, permanent magnet and diaphragm to convert electrical voltage into sound waves. Magnetic earphones have low impedance and are not polarized. You can speak into a magnetic earphones to use it as a microphone. Similarly the loudspeaker and horn type loudspeaker have a coil for a driver. Volume control is usually by a potentiometer situated at the input to the main amplifying section of the circuit.
38.2.1 P-type and N-type semiconductors
All semiconductors, e.g. silicon, are insulators. However the silicon atom has four outer electrons so it can form bonds with electrons from four atoms around it to form silicon crystals. Phosphorus has five outer electrons. If some phosphorus is added to silicon crystals, called chip doping or metallizing doping, the phosphorus atoms each provide an extra electron to make an N-type semiconductor with free electrons to conduct electricity. Aluminium has three outer electrons. If silicon crystals are doped with aluminium each aluminium atom lacks one electron for bonding, it has a "positive hole" to make a P-type semiconductor that can accept electrons.
38.2.2 Diodes
See diagram 38.2.2
P-type and N-type semiconductors can be combined to form a P-N junction diode or PN diode that lets current flow through it in one direction as electrons move from N-type to P-type semiconductors. When a PN diode is placed in a circuit, conventional current flows from the positive terminal of the battery, through P to N, to the negative terminal of the battery, called forward bias. With reverse bias, no conventional current flows across the junction, through N to P. As diodes let current flow only in one direction they must be place correctly in a circuit. Power diodes or protection diodes protect the circuit against reversal of current flow. Signal diodes, made of Germanium, detect radio frequency currents. Diodes are frequently used as rectifiers to change alternating current to pulsating direct current or with smoothing, to direct current, e.g. IN4001 They may be used simply as a reversed polarity protection device. Signal diodes in radio receives have very low voltage drop. (Comment: It is difficult to understand diodes in terms of conventional current flow so refer to electron flow and ignore any arrows on device symbols.)
38.2.2.1 Zener diodes
The Zener diode lets current flow only in one direction but only up to a certain voltage. Then the reverse resistance drops and the diode conducts reverse current maintaining a constant voltage drop. It can control the maximum voltage in the circuit. So a 12 V Zener diode is similar to a junction diode in forward bias but shows a sharp increase in reverse current at 12 volts. A Zener diode can be used for voltage reference or as a voltage regulator The end closer to the cathode is marked with a band. (Comment: Zener diodes are a bit more complex than outlined here. For example there are different thermal effects between Zener diodes and Avalanche diodes, although marketers bunch them together. Semiconductors do come between conductors and insulators but the thermal effect on resistance is quite different between conductors and semi-conductors.)
38.2.2.2 Light-emitting diode, LED
See also 39.1.1: Resistor and LED | See also 39.1.2: Brightness and current | See also 39.2.1: Manual control of an LED
The LED is a P-N junction diode that emits light when the forward bias voltage across it exceeds a certain value and current flows. The positive lead, anode, through which conventional current enters, may be longer and the cathode side might be cut flat or have a coloured dot. LEDs are damaged by reverse polarity or excessive forward voltage so they must be protected by a resistance in series to allow a forward bias of about 2 volts. LEDs are used for low voltage alpha-numeric displays in calculators, warning lamps, panel metres, and as indicator lights because they consume much less electricity than an incandescent lamp and they rarely fail. The usual LED has a red or orange 5 mm diameter dome shaped container. Some LEDs are bicolour and tricolour. A LED is a diode, so current flows in one direction only through it. A forward biased LED lights with a voltage drop across it of 0.7 V. Reversed bias current does not flow through the LED so it does not light, but reverse bias will not harm it. If a LED needs a forward bias voltage of 2 V and current 20 mA, place a resistor in series with resistance, R = voltage of power supply - 2 volts / 0.02 amps. A domed LED has the longest lead as the positive lead, or anode, and the shortest lead as the negative lead, or cathode. Also the plastic container nearest the cathode will be flattened slightly and if hold up to a light, the largest part inside will be nearest the cathode.
38.2.2.2.1 Seven-segment display
Arrange 7 separate LEDs in a figure 8 pattern to create 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and so converting electrical signals to visual information.
38.2.2.3 Test circuits using an LED
See reference | See diagram 38.2.2.3 | See also 39.1.4: Current direction indicator
The LED can be used in a circuit to give 2 kinds of information as follows:
1. Whether current is passing though the circuit, i.e. all components have current passing through them,
2. Whether more or less current is passing because the LED can glow brighter or less bright.
In the circuit include a resistor of about 400 ohms and a protection diode, e.g. IN4002:
1. Test an incandescent lamp. If the LED glows then there is no break in the lamp filament.
2. Test a resistor, e.g. about 1000 ohms.
Note the brightness of the LED. Add a second resistor in series. Note the brightness of the LED. Add a third resistor in series. Note the brightness of the LED. The light from the LED gets dimmer because the resistance gets greater, R = r1 + r2 + r3.
3. Test a resistor, e.g. about 1000 ohms. Note the brightness of the LED. Add a second resistor in parallel. Note the brightness of the LED. Add a third resistor in parallel. Note the brightness of the LED. The light from the LED gets brighter because the resistance becomes less, 1 / R = 1 / r1 + 1 / r2 + 1 / r3.
4. Test a diode by inserting in the circuit in the direction indicated. The LED does not give out light. (e) Test a diode by inserting in the circuit in the direction indicated. The LED does give out light.
5. Test an electrolytic capacitor, e.g. 100 muF. As the capacitor charges the LED glows but as the capacitor achieves full charge the LED brightness decreases until when fully charged the LED stops glowing. The LED glow might be a brief flash depending on the value in farads of the capacitor.
38.2.3 Diode as a half-wave rectifier
Construction and testing of a diode rectifier and smoothing capacitor circuit to convert AC to d.c. voltage
See diagram 38.2.3
A semiconductor diode, like a thermionic diode, rectifies, i.e. converts alternating current, a.c. to pulses of direct current, d.c., called half-wave rectification The diode removes the negative cycles of a.c. to give a varying one way direct voltage across the load requiring a d.c. supply. The humps are smoothed by connecting an electrolytic capacitor across the load. During the positive half cycles of the a.c. current flow through the load and also into the electrolytic capacitor. During the negative half cycles of the a.c. current flow when the diode is reversed biased and not conducting current the electrolytic capacitor partly discharges through the load maintaining the current through the load and a steadier voltage.
38.2.3.1 Smoothing
See diagram 38.2.3.1
The humps in the d.c. are smoothed by connecting a large electrolytic capacitor across a resistance. During the positive half cycles of the AC supply, the diode conducts current that flows through the resistor and also into the electrolytic capacitor. During the negative half cycles of the AC supply, when the diode is reverse biased and non-conducting, the electrolytic capacitor partly discharges through the resistance. The charge storing action of the electrolytic capacitor thus maintains current through the resistor and a steadier voltage across it.
38.2.3.2 AC to d.c. motor
Power a d.c. motor with an AC power supply using two diodes and an Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) centre-off switch to switch the motor on and off. AC supply must be at least 1.5 times the voltage required by the d.c. motor because a half-wave rectifier wastes half the power.
38.2.4 Full-wave rectification
See diagram 38.2.4
Using both half cycles of the AC, the current in a bridge circuit follows the solid arrows when A is positive and B negative on the positive half cycles, and follows the broken arrows when A is negative and B positive on the negative half cycles when the polarities are reversed. During both half cycles current flows through the load in the same direction. and can later be smoothed.
38.3.1 Transistors
See diagram 38.3.1: 1. Test N-P-N, 2. Test P-N-P | See reference: "FUNWAY"
A thin layer of P-type semiconductor between two layers of N-type semiconductor is used for an N-P-N, transistor. A bipolar transistor ("transfer resistor") is a semiconductor sandwich with a very thin filling of either p-type or n-type material called the base. The outside layers, called the collector and emitter, are the same but of a different material to the base. The two kinds of transistor are N-P-N (or NPN) and P-N-P (or PNP). The arrow on the emitter in the symbol indicates the direction of conventional current in the transistor and shows its type. Whichever way the transistor is drawn the arrow points out for an NPN transistor and in for a PNP transistor. Construction and testing of a simple NPN transistor or IC operational amplifier circuit to measure voltage gain. simulation.
38.3.1.1 NPN transistors
38.3.1.2 PNP transistors
38.3.1.1 NPN transistors
Silicon NPN types are most common. The transistor has 3 leads:
1. the base lead or B to the middle P-type semiconductor,
2. the collector lead or C to the first N-type semiconductor,
3. the emitter lead or E from the second N-type semiconductor.
An NPN transistor has a positive voltage on its collector and a negative voltage on its emitter. When a positive voltage to the emitter is applied to the base the transistor lets current to flow through the collector / emitter circuit. Small current through the base circuit causes much greater current through the emitter / collector circuit. This current gain measures how much the transistor can amplify. The arrow in the circuit diagram for the emitter points outwards. Transistors are fast switches. They can be damaged if too hot and must have the correct direction of connection. The emitter can be identified by a tag or by the shape of the case or by a dot. The NPN transistor is connected to the positive lead from the battery and the emitter is connected to the negative lead from the battery. The transistor may be protected by a 1 k ohm resistor in the base lead. BC 108 and ZTX 300 are general purpose NPN silicon transistors.
38.3.1.2 PNP transistors
The PNP transistor has the same function as the NPN transistor but it has a negative voltage on its collector and a positive voltage on its emitter. When a negative voltage with respect to the emitter applies to the base conventional current flows in the opposite direction through the collector / emitter circuit. The arrow points inwards on the circuit symbols for a PNP transistor. OC71 is PNP Germanium transistor.
38.3.2 Transistor as a switch
See diagram 38.3.2
If the E and C are connected in a circuit, electrons from the N-type E fill the positive holes in the P-type B so no current can flow. However, when a small positive potential is applied to B, electrons can flow out of the holes so B can conduct current again. So the transistor acts as a switch.
38.3.2.1 Transistor as a switch with potential divider
See diagram 38.3.2.1
The base voltage depends on voltage from the variable resistor / voltage of fixed resistor.
38.3.3 Transistor as a current amplifier
See diagram 38.3.3
A small current from the P-type B allows a large current to flow through the NPN transistor, called current amplification. The ratio of collector current to base current, called current amplification factor, may be a "gain" of X 100. A certain current to B produces a larger replica current flowing into C from the circuit and out through E to the circuit.
38.3.4 Transistor as a voltage amplifier
When a resistance is place in the C circuit, changes in current caused by an input signal voltage produce changes in output signal voltage across the resistance. The ratio of input signal voltage to output signal voltage voltage, called voltage amplification factor, may be a "gain" of X 100.
38.3.5 Light dependent resistor (LDR), photocell, photoelectric sensor
Semiconductor applications of LDR and LEDR = R1 + R + R3 + . . .
See also 39.1.5: Light dependent resistor | See also 39.1.6: Simple burglar alarm with LDR
The resistance depends on the light intensity, e.g. in the dark state resistance is very high, in the light resistance is much lower. The resistance changes gradually as the amount of light changes so it can be used to monitor light levels. The LDR is not polarized. A photoelectric sensor can be adjusted respond only to the pulse of a particular LED or a certain threshold of light and not background light. A photoelectric proximity switch has the light source and light sensor in the same unit. The sensor picks up the pulse of the LED as it reflects off of the object being sensed. A retroreflective photoelectric sensor has the light source is reflected off a reflector back at the source which houses the sensor. So anything crossing between the two objects which decrease light intensity causes the sensor to switch. ORP 12 is a general purpose LDR.
38.3.6 Thermistor
The resistance decreases when heated or when current passes through it causing heat. So an incandescent globe may turn on at higher temperature when resistance in the circuit is less. This is a general purpose thermistor
38.3.7 Silicon controlled rectifier (s.c.r.), thyristor
A silicon diode with third connection, the gate. If forward biased the diode does not conduct current until the a small gate current enters then the diode always conducts until the battery is disconnected. THY 1A / 50 is a general purpose thyristor.
38.3.8 Light dependent diode, LDD
38.4.1 Capacitor charge and discharge
See diagram 38.4.1
Capacitance of a capacitor = charge on each plate per voltage between plates, C = Q / V. The SI unit of capacitance the farad, F, is equivalent to 1 coulomb per volt. Use an ammeter with deflection in either direction, e.g. 10-0-10 mA, note deflection and whether capacitor keeps or loses its charge:
1. before flying lead connected,
2. flying lead connected for charging,
3. then flying lead disconnected,
4. flying lead connected again for charging,
5. then flying lead disconnected,
6. flying lead connected for discharging.
38.4.2 Capacitor charge and discharge with cathode ray oscilloscope, CRO
See diagram 38.4.2
Set variable capacitor at about 50 muF and variable resistance at about 50 k ohms. Set CRO at slowest time -base and sensitivity 1 V / cm. Connect the earthed Y-input socket to low potential side of the capacitor. When slow trace starts to cross screen, connect flying lead for charging to see trace showing voltage across capacitor changing with time as capacitor charges, i.e. a graph of voltage against time. Disconnect flying lead. When slow trace starts to cross screen, connect flying lead for discharging. See graph. Disconnect flying lead.
38.6.00 Radio waves,
Radio frequency, AC, signal pulse, Frequency bands VHF, Telecommunications, radio receivers, wireless, waveband carriers, wave tuners, transmitters, receivers, modulator, UHF radio wave generator
38.6.01 Frequency modulated, FM, amplitude modulated, AM, signal
Aerial or antenna is a length of wire in the air for the purpose of receiving radio waves. AM Amplitude Modulation is a type of radio communication where audio frequency signals vary the strength of a radio frequency carrier wave, called modulation. Amplify means to enlarge a small current but keep the original signal information. The broadcast band is the part of the radio frequency spectrum for local radio stations, e.g. 530 to 1600 kHz. The carrier Wave in AM radio wave is the part that does not have any signal information itself but carries the signal with it. Feedback occurs when some or all of the output of a device (an amplifier, for example) can be fed back into the input. Accidental feedback is unwanted, e.g. acoustic feedback from a speaker to a microphone with a resultant squeal) Deliberate feedback includes the many types of circuits where feedback is used to correct operation. Radio Frequency The part of the spectrum with frequencies from around 20 kHz and above.
38.7.01.1 Logic gates
Logic board, logic gates, NOT gate (inverter) NOR gate, OR gate, AND gate, NAND gate, EOR gate, logic gate combinations, operation
Integrated circuit, IC, s is a circuit integrated onto a chip of almost pure silicon and may contain thousands of transistors. Digital integrated circuits. Process signals with great speed and accuracy, e.g. switch, add to or subtract, they are the basic units of computers, measuring instruments, control equipment, entertainment devices. TTL ICs (Transistor Transistor Logic) CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor). Digital IC's are represented in circuit diagrams.
See 38.7.01.1: Logic Gate Symbols
Type of logic gate Input / output symbols Truth Table Input A Truth Table Input B Truth Table Output Y Output Y is high when:
NOT (inverter) A / Y 0 - 1 input A is NOT high.
- - 1 - 0 -
OR A, B / Y 0 0 0 input A OR B is high
- - 1 0 1 -
- - 0 1 1 -
- - 1 1 1 -
NOR (OR - NOT) A, B / Y 0 0 1 neither input A NOR input B is high
- - 1 0 0 -
- - 0 1 0 -
- - 1 1 0 -
AND A, B / Y 0 0 0 input A AND input B are high
- - 1 0 0 -
- - 0 1 0 -
- - 1 1 1 -
NAND (AND - NOT) A, B / Y 0 0 1 input A AND input B are NOT both high
- - 1 0 1 -
- - 0 1 1 -
- - 1 1 0 -
38.7.03.1 Bits and bytes
A bit is the name given to a single piece of information representing a 0 or a 1. In 0 can be represented by a negative voltage and the 1 can be represented by a positive voltage. In a computer, the Central Processing Unit (CPU) power is measured by how many instructions it can execute per second, e.g. an 8 bit or 16 bit or 32 bit or 64 bit microprocessor can process 8 bits or 16 bits or 32 bits or 64 bits at a time. With 8 bits, 256 different values (the numbers from 0 to 255) can be represented because 28 = 256. A groups of 8 bits is called a byte or octet.
A bit (Binary digit) is a digit in the binary number system, shown as 0 or 1. A binary number is represented by one or more bits. The binary number system uses successive powers of 2, so in binary notation the decimal number 11 is represented as the binary number 1011 (decimal numbers 8 + 0 + 2 +1). An analogue signal continuously changing with time, e.g. voltage, pressure, velocity, temperature. A digital signal takes a reading of a signal at regular time intervals so it is a sample of an analogue signal or a value of original data. Digital electronic circuits operate on the presence or absence of highs and lows, a pulse =1 and no pulse = 0. A binary signal is a digital signal which has only two finite number of values, normally two different voltage values represented by High / Low, ON / OFF, True and False, High and Low, Logic HIGH (or logic 1) Logic LOW (or logic 0).
38.7.03.2 Decimal and binary codes for numbers 0 to 25 Powers of 2
n 0 1 2 3 4 5
2n 1 2 4 8 16 32
n 6 7 8 9 10 11
2n 64 128 256 512 1024 2048

Decimal to binary, e.g. decimal number 99
Highest power of 2 in 99 = 26 = 64, 99 - 64 = 35
Highest power of 2 in 35 = 25 = 32, 35 - 32 = 3
Highest power of 2 in 3 = 21 = 2, 3 - 2 = 1
Highest power of 2 in 1 = 20
So binary number = 1100011
(64 + 32 + 2 + 1 = 99)
Binary to decimal
e.g. 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 =
1 1 0 0 0 1 1
26 25 0 0 0 21 20
64 + 32 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 1

= 99

-- Most significant bit Least significant bit Highest weight Least weight
Decimal
Number		 Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary
- 24 = 16 23 = 8 22 = 4 21 = 2 20 =1
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 0 1 1
4 0 0 1 0 0
5 0 0 1 0 1
6 0 0 1 1 0
7 0 0 1 1 1
8 0 1 0 0 0
9 0 1 0 0 1
10 0 1 0 1 0
11 0 1 0 1 1
12 0 1 1 0 0
13 0 1 1 0 1
14 0 1 1 1 0
15 0 1 1 1 1
16 1 0 0 0 0
17 1 0 0 0 1
18 1 0 0 1 0
19 1 0 0 1 1
20 1 0 1 0 0
21 1 0 1 0 1
22 1 0 1 1 0
23 1 0 1 1 1
24 1 1 0 0 0
25 1 1 0 0 1

31 1 1 1 1 1

38.7.03.3 Addition of binary numbers
0 + 0 = 0, i.e. decimal number 0
1 + 0 = 1, i.e. decimal number 1
1 + 1 = 10, i.e. decimal number 2
1 + 10 = 11, i.e. decimal number 3
1 + 11 = 100, i.e. decimal number 4
10 + 11 = 101, i.e. decimal number 5
11 + 11 = 110, i.e. decimal number 6
37 + 20 = 57
power of 2 25 24 23 22 21 20
decimal 37 1 0 0 1 0 1
decimal 20 -
 1 0 1 0 0
decimal 57 1 1 1 0 0 1
calculation 1 0 + 1 = 1 0 + 0 + 1
=1		 1 x 22 +
1 x 22 =
2 x 22 =
23		 0 + 0 =
digit 0		 1 x 20 +
0 x 20
= 1 x 20
= digit 1
carry out -
 -
 -
 <--
carry 1 out		 -
 -
carry in -
 -
 carry 1 in -
 -
 -
38.7.03.4 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Exchange)
A 1100 0001 K 1101 0010 U 1110 0100 4 0011 0100
B 1100 0010 L 1101 0011 V 1110 0101 5 0011 0101
C 1100 0011 M 1101 0100 W 1110 0110 6 00110110
D 1100 0100 N 1101 0101 X 1110 0111 7 0011 0111
E 1100 0101 O 1101 0110 Y 1110 1000 8 0011 1000
F 1100 0110 P 1101 0111 Z 1110 1001 9 0011 1001
G 1100 0111 Q 1101 1000 0 0011 0000 -
 0010 1110
H 1100 1000 R 1101 1001 1 00110001 -
 0010 1100
I 1100 1001 S 1110 0010 2 00110010 ? 0011 1111
J 1101 0001 T 1110 0011 3 00110011 ! 0010 0001
Other topic headings: Timers, position and velocity detectors, sources of sound, sound detectors, circuits / components / instruments, function generators, oscilloscopes, advanced instruments, power supplies, light sources, light paths made visible, lasers, microwave apparatus, computer interface.