School Science Lessons
Coconut Project 2
2012-05-10 SPwp
Please send comments to: J.Elfick@uq.edu.au

Table of contents
17.0 New ways to make coconut oil
17.1 "Copha"
19.0 Intercropping
21.0 Future of coconut growing
2.0 Characteristics of Tall coconuts and Dwarf coconuts
15.1 Fatty acids in coconut oil and other oils
18.1 Roots
18.2 Stems, trunks
18.3 Leaves, fronds
18.4 Inflorescence, flowers
18.5 Seed and fruit

17.0 New ways to make coconut oil
See also 19.2.1.1.1: Coconut oil, Composition of edible oils:
The industrial production of coconut oil starts with the pressing of heated copra. The product of this process contains a high level of free fatty acids and undesirable flavours, colours and aromas because of the variable quality of copra from different sources. Before edible coconut oil can be produced, further processes of refining, bleaching and deodorizing are needed. By contrast, virgin coconut oil made from the fresh kernel without heating is edible if the extraction is done properly. This oil is stable with a long shelf and has a low content of free fatty acids and provides Vitamin E in the diet. New technology allows coconut oil to be made locally where the coconut palms grow. New methods are being used to make "virgin coconut oil", i.e. coconut oil pressed without using long high temperatures, up to 60oC. Virgin coconut oil is derived from fresh coconuts, not copra. With the wet milling method the oil is extracted from fresh coconut meat (kernel, endosperm) without drying first. Coconut milk is expressed first by pressing. The oil can then be separated from the water by boiling, fermentation, refrigeration, enzymes and centrifuges. Virgin coconut oil has a neutral colour and attractive aroma of a distinct coconut flavour but not the roasted flavour of traditional village coconut oil. Virgin oils made by methods 1. and 2. below have stimulated a market in developed countries for coconut oil as a medicine (neutriceutical, health assisting food) to be processed to soaps, shampoos and body lotions, and to be used in deep frying, cakes and biscuits. The advertising for virgin coconut oil highlights its health benefits, e.g. helping in weight loss and boosting body energy. The old technology used to extract oil from copra produced low quality "industrial" oil produced by using very high temperature and pressure in a factory. This oil required refining, bleaching and deodorizing before it could be used in food preparation or for high quality soap. No world standard definition of "virgin coconut oil" exists.
1. Fermentation and gentle heat method
Stand the coconut cream at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours to cause separation of water from the emulsion. Pour off the now concentrated emulsion and heat gently to drive off any remaining water. The settled oil is clear, colourless and has an attractive aroma. They market it as virgin coconut oil. This oil does not undergo the prolonged boiling used to produce village oil from coconut cream. The protein in the coconut cream breaks down during the standing period. However, the village method of boiling fresh coconut cream causes coagulation of the protein, which becomes roasted as the boiling proceeds and gives a distinct flavour to the oil. Coconut oil produced by the prolonged boiling method may have free fatty acids of 1% owing to the high temperature experienced in the final stage of heating, but coconut oil separated by the fermentation method has lower free fatty acids content and fetches a premium price.
2. Direct micro expelling method (DME)
In the direct micro expelling method of wet milling the oil is extracted from fresh coconut meat (kernel, endosperm) after the adjustment of the water content, then the pressing of the coconut flesh results in the direct extraction of free flowing oil. This process extracts coconut oil under moderate pressure and temperature, generally not above 60oC, from shredded coconuts at moisture content about 11%. The process achieves up to 90% extraction of the oil. The raw meat (kernel, endosperm) is shredded finely by
a powered rotating head. Shredding with a traditional tool is too slow and the shreds are too coarse. The shredded coconut is quickly dried on a large iron plate then packed tightly into a perforated cylinder. The coconut is squeezed by a piston pushed down into the cylinder under pressure from a lever mechanism operated by hand. The press can produce up to 1 litre of oil per batch. Four operators can produce about 50L per day from about 500 coconuts, depending on how much meat (kernel, endosperm) per coconut. After the oil is extracted, the remaining residual cake can be used in the kitchen for baked products or as supplemental feed for pigs and poultry. The DME oil has outstanding qualities of aroma and clarity after a settling time of two days. It is stable and appears to have an indefinite shelf life without developing free fatty acids at room temperature.
3. Fry drying method or Hot Oil Immersion Drying method (HOID)
This method is based on a traditional method of producing coconut oil for local markets in South East Asia. It uses a hot coconut oil bath to dry fresh coconut meat (kernel, endosperm) from which, after draining, the oil is pressed out using a high pressure screw press after mincing the dried pieces. The acceptable shelf life for the oil produced is 2 to 3 months. Fry drying is recommended at a regional scale with access to 250 ha of productive palms per factory for commercial success. Equipment to process 2 tonnes of meat (kernel, endosperm) per day would have a daily output of about 700L of oil. Fry drying oil has a roasted flavour, which appeals strongly to the domestic market for cooking oil but the price is much lower than for DME and fermentation oil.
17.1 "Copha"
"Copha" is an Australian brand of semi-solid hydrogenated coconut oil used to make food for children's parties, e.g. chocolate crackles. In other countries hydrogenated coconut fat products include "Kremelta" (New Zealand), "Végétaline" (France) and "Palmin" (Germany). Coconut oil is heat stable so it is suited to methods of cooking at high temperatures. It is slow to oxidize and resistant to rancidity. Coconut oils melt at 24°C so foods containing coconut oil tend to melt in warm climates, e.g. Australia. So for warm climates the oil is hydrogenated to attain a melting point of 36°C to 40°C. The higher melting point is caused by the saturation of the remaining unsaturated fats in the oil. The high melting point of chocolate is stearic oil, the largest common saturated fatty acid. Hydrogenated linoleic acid in Copha has physical properties quite similar to stearic acid because they have equal chain length. Some cooks mix Copha with cocoa to gain a higher melting point. Children at children's parties have been known to vomit after eating too many chocolate crackles.
Chocolate Crackles recipe
Use 250g "Copha", 4 cups of "Rice Bubbles" (puffed rice), 1 cup of icing sugar, 3 tablespoons of cocoa, and 1 cup of desiccated coconut. Melt "Copha" in a saucepan over a low heat or in a microwave oven. Mix dried ingredients. Mix with melted "Copha" until well combined. Spoon mixture evenly into 24 paper patty containers. Set in the refrigerator.

19.0 Intercropping
Coconuts are almost the ideal plants for inter-cropping because of the low percentage of air space between canopy and ground of older palms, the structure of the canopy fronds and the percentage of solar radiation they allow to pass, and the radius and depth of the roots. At the common planting distance of 8 × 8 metres, only about 25% of the plantation area is used by the roots and most roots are between 30 and 130 cm depth. Also, only about 45% of the radiation from the sun falls on the coconut palm leaves. So coconut growing is an inefficient way to use land! Other crops can be 12 times more efficient. The annual crops corn (maize) soybean, peanuts and sweet potato have about 40% yields under coconuts compared to growing in the open.
Mung bean, sweet pepper, Tabasco pepper, sunflower, ginger and taro may have increased yields under coconuts. Robusta coffee and cocoa can be very successful annual intercrops and many tropical perennial crops have proved successful, e.g. pineapple, papaya, jack fruit. Intercropping may increase the yield of coconut palms if the soil is lightly cultivated.
In some place cattle are successfully kept under coconuts. Cattle check weed growth and give manure to the soil but they may also compact the soil. Shade tolerant grasses and legumes may be planted, e.g. Guinea grass (Panicum) Pangola grass (Digitaria) Centro (Centrosema) Stylo (Stylosanthes) Siratro (Phaseolus) Ipil-ipil (Leucaena). Beside cattle and other animals under coconuts, intercrops can include ornamental plants, Gliricidia for fuel and cattle feed, tubers, (cassava, sweet potato, taro, yams), cereals, (finger millet, maize, sorghum), legumes, (cowpea, green gram, groundnuts, soybeans, winged beans), fruits, (banana, citrus, papaya, passion fruit, pineapple, pomegranate), spices, (areca nut, betel nut leaves, black pepper, chillies, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, nutmeg, sesame, turmeric, vanilla), and pasture grasses, cocoa and coffee. However, intercrops may compete for soil nutrients so some special applications of fertilizers may be needed.

21.0 Future of coconut growing
It has been recognized for several decades that the uncritical message that coconut oil boosts harmful cholesterol creating an increased heart risk is not true. The soy industry worked very hard to discredit coconut oil after the second world war when imports to the US resumed following liberation of the Philippines. The wartime boost to demand for edible oils in the US had given the soy industry a huge lift and the producers and marketers were keen not to concede the market back to the pre-war preferred coconut shortening and cooking oil. The trials that showed cholesterol to rise in laboratory animals on sole coconut as the fat component in the diet, compared with steady cholesterol when soy was the sole dietary oil, gave that bad result for coconut as coconut lacks the essential fats, ω-6 fatty acids (omega-6 fatty acids) and ω-3 fatty acids (n-3 fatty acids). The animals were suffering from that deficiency and their cholesterol was high. The soy industry seized upon those results and re-educated a whole generation of health professionals and dieticians about dietary fats like "saturated is bad for your heart and polyunsaturated is good for your heart". There are many references on the internet that deal with this story.
In reality the saturated fats in coconut oil boost HDL as much as they boost LDL so that there is a non-harmful balance maintained. Coconut is definitely not a heart risk in a balanced diet. In the Pacific islands large scale commercial plantations are in decline but smallholder production continues because coconuts are important for consumption, cash crops and shade for intercrops in subsistence agriculture. Green coconut water is an important source of fluids and mineral salts for people living on coral atolls and its isotonic properties make it useful for diarrhoea, cholera and other causes of dehydration. Coconut flesh supplements fish in remote communities. As a cash crop, coconuts may be sold locally, processed at village level to make coconut oil, meal and coconut cream but the main cash crop is copra sold to traders and processors. Prices of coconut products are not stable in the world market and
cyclones may destroy crops, so coconut farmers need intercrops for income security. In the Pacific islands a big proportion of coconuts may not be picked up for harvest when prices are low because of the cost of labour from outside the family. Average figures for a smallholding of 0.5 hectares in Papua New Guinea have been estimated as a nut yield of 3000 kg / hectare, an average weight of 1.5 kg per nut, a copra yield of 0.24 kg / nut, and copra yield of 480 kg / hectare and total dried copra production of 240
kg. The smallholder has to pay for labour to collect nuts off the ground or harvest from tree, labour for dehusking, drying the endosperm and transport of copra to a trader. When the international copra price is low copra production is attractive only where alternative employment opportunities are limited. In many countries, a high percentage of coconut palms are senile with declining production. Smallholders may be content to allow self-seeding to maintain stands of trees of different ages instead of replacing palms with high yielding varieties to avoid a declining productivity which may not even be noticed. Where there is insecure land tenure or customary tenure, smallholders may not want to risk cash investment to improve yields. Where governments have been involved in the marketing, finance, regulation, research and advice of the coconut industry run by smallholders, the fees for such services have acted as a tax on smallholders and limited the use of new technologies to increase production.

22.0 The coconut palm - voyager, nourisher and beautifier of the tropical world, Mike Foale, University of Queensland
Origin
On the geographical fringe of the great palm gene pool of Gondwanaland the coconut claimed for itself an exclusive niche among palms along the coastal edge of plant ecosystems - that is to say, the strand. The Pandanus tree of the strand is not a palm, being a member of the monocotyledon Pandanaceae Family. Freed from the constraint of competing at close quarters with most other species great and small by developing a sea-going seed, the coconut spread to strands all around the Tethys sea. This vast stretch
of warm water was located between huge but disintegrating components of Gondwanaland - Antarctica and Australasia to the south, the African continent to the west, the Cretaceous land mass of Asia to the north, while being wide open eastwards to the Pacific, with its westward warm water flows. It seems likely that the Tethys sea was, for many millions of years, a warm environment, in which many species that we now associate with the zone flanking the equator, evolved and adapted to a tropical environment. The coconut spread far and wide by floating between diverse fragments of land, among them Madagascar, Mauritius, southern India and Sri Lanka. It would eventually reach by natural dispersal the coasts of southeast Asia, the islands of present day Indonesia, southern Philippines, Hainan, New Guinea, Melanesia, and even Australia, Micronesia, and some Polynesian atolls and high islands.

Domestication
Many millions of years would have elapsed until human groups migrated eastwards along the southern coasts of Asia, taking advantage of the presence of easily accessible and nourishing food and drinking water supplied from the coconut to support settlement and further migration. Settlers practised selection for palm and fruit traits which better suited their domestic and seagoing needs. Whereas the truly wild palm produced a fruit enclosing a small nut (of diameter about 100 mm) encased in a thick "'life-jacket" to maximize flotation and survival while "voyaging", a fruit enclosing a larger nut was favoured as a more convenient source of food and water. This delivered a greater amount of edible kernel, more easily scraped out, and there was less biomass invested in the husk and shell than in the wild fruit. A further advantage was that large fruit, harvested at the tender nut or drinking stage, contained a much more generous quantity of water - a great drink supply for voyaging traders and explorers. A nut only 20% larger in diameter than the wild type contains almost double the volume of water at the "drinking" stage of maturity, while encased in a thinner husk.
From about 4000 years BP the ancestral Polynesian settlers, extending their domain from south-east Asia eastwards, made great use of the coconut "water bottle" while travelling on their splendid double-hulled canoes (in which the planks are secured together with coconut fibre) to discover the many habitable islands of the south Pacific, and Hawaii. It seems very likely that almost everywhere, on arrival, they found the wild coconut on the strand which provided a nourishing welcome, particularly on atolls but also on the sandy beaches of high islands. Mature fruit germinating on board their vessels would have been available to plant at any new settlement. The presence of large-fruited palm populations on many Polynesian homelands in the Pacific, including Samoa, Tonga, Rotuma, Rennell and Sikaiana confirms this. The dominance of thick-husked types on most atolls suggests that their colonizers generally did not have
large thin-husked nuts on arrival, allowing the wild type to remain dominant.

The Australian coconut story
The history of the coconut in Australia is less clear and has become the subject of dispute between those who claim that it cannot be considered a native plant here and those who point to a small number of historical records of its presence before foreign settlement in the 19th century. McGillivray reported two clumps of palms observed in 1848 close together on Russell Island in the Frankland group south of Cairns in north Queensland, and Thozet described an isolated ancient palm sighted in the 1850s at Emu Park (near Yepoon) where there is a landmark named "Coconut Point” to acknowledge that discovery. It is clear that viable coconut seeds do come ashore naturally on the coast of north Queensland in particular, as local aboriginal languages include specific words for the edible fruit found on the beach. Avid collection of such fruit and even of sprouted nuts to extract the kernel treat found therein, and also the destruction of drifted fruit by the foraging native white-tailed rat, are likely reasons why the coconut was naturally present
n so few places when the new settlers arrived. It is highly probable that there were coconut palms on the Queensland coast when the aborigines first arrived (around 50 000 years BP). The shoreline during that period of low sea level (peaking at 150 metres below its present level around 20 000 years BP due to the most recent ice age), would have been far to seaward from its present position. When the sea level rose during the melting of the Northern hemisphere ice over the millennia following the peak of the ice age, older palms on the shore would have gradually been overtaken. Meanwhile their seed would have been thrown "forward" to establish new palms on the strand as it slowly "retreated" before the ever-rising tide.

Life story
The growth of the coconut seedling is supported by the energy reserve in the kernel, lasting for up to 15 months. In nature this would have greatly increased the probability that the germinating seedling growing on a deep sandy strand could survive the delay until its roots reached the water table or adequate stored water in the deep heavy-textured soil profile. The water present in the coconut seed stimulates germination once the husk adjacent to the germ pore is leached free of salt water. The haustorium then expands into the cavity, gradually absorbing the rich nutrient and energy supply provided by the kernel, translocating it to the seedling. This prolonged "alternative" supply of biomass to support growth has led to another "career" for the coconut seedling, as a successful indoor plant. It can thrive for up to two years in a temperature above 21oC at any latitude while the leaves achieve limited photosynthesis. Some leaf
exposure to sunlight penetrating indoors could further extend the ornamental life of the seedling. Apart from its unique large fruit (exceeded only by the fruit of Laodicea maldivica, Coco-de-Mer) the coconut shares key botanical traits with many other palms: steady production of non-thorny fronds, and inflorescences, when temperature is not seasonal; monoecious habit with large female and small male flowers on every palm; clean shedding of the frond after about two years except in very dry environments. Palms such as coconut, lacking the ability to generate suckers, are destined to perish within about 100 years from germination, as their inexorable height increase is combined, beyond 60 years, with narrowing and weakening of the upper trunk, known as "pencil pointing". The coconut species (Cocos nucifera L) has three clearly distinguished sub-types, being the Tall, the fragile Dwarf and the robust Dwarf. The latter is not widely dispersed and might well have been the product of prolonged natural or human-assisted selection in cyclone-prone regions. A short sturdy palm, out-crossing and more conveniently harvested by climbing, it is found almost exclusively in Polynesia and Fiji and might well have been among the genotypes "planted-on-arrival” on new shores, or traded during
the many exchange visits that took place in Polynesia.
The more common fragile dwarf also has a reduced rate of height increase, but this is combined with a narrower trunk. Not common in cyclone-prone regions, this dwarf frequently displays the genetically recessive orange and yellow fruit colours (some have the non-recessive green colour) because it is predominantly self-pollinating. The small fruit, borne in large number, is a very convenient source of drink in the home and village, as harvest is relatively easy, at least for 25 years, and the water content is modest. The tall type of coconut exhibits a very rapid rate of trunk extension (as high as 1.5 m/yr) from age four years until 10 years or so, at which time an increasing proportion of new biomass is diverted from trunk extension to supply rising fruit production. Cross-pollination is the rule for tall-type palms, resulting in obvious heterozygosity in fruit size, shape and colour (mostly shades of green and brown) compared to the inbreeding dwarf, but generally there is little variation in trunk and crown characters within tall populations.

Many products and uses
Coastal communities consume coconut water and milk extracted from the kernel on a daily basis, as do most rural peoples of the humid tropical lowlands. Mature and tender nuts are traded extensively into nearby highland and urban regions. Coconut milk, pressed daily from shredded kernel, is a routine ingredient in traditional cuisine. Heating coconut milk to evaporate the water provides an oil of attractive flavour for domestic use, as well as for local use in skin lotions and shampoos. It is this oil which got the attention of European traders and subsequently entered international trade in the mid-19th century as dried kernel (copra) which comprises about two thirds oil by weight.
The sap tapped from the bound-up inflorescence is valued highly in many traditional cultures, especially Sri Lanka, parts of Indonesia and Philippines and Micronesia. It provides a vitamin-rich beverage when fresh, an alcoholic drink after fermentation, and a source of palm sugar when evaporated.
Rapidly growing demand for oil to supplement the supply of animal fats including tallow and whale oil resulted in widespread investment in coconut plantations producing copra. This is the kiln- or sun dried kernel which was stored and then transported to developed countries.. particularly in Europe and north America. Coconut oil enjoyed a period of several decades as the dominant traded vegetable oil, but high price due to increasing demand and disrupted trade during the mid-20th century, brought about a rapid
rise in production of many other oils - notably soy, palm oil, and canola. Inevitably the price fell, and a combination of low yield and a high cost of production rendered most coconut plantations unprofitable by the 1980s. In some regions the plantations reverted to indigenous ownership with copra production ongoing, while in others oil palm, replaced coconut, often with a core plantation and satellite oil palm farms for smallholders.
The oil palm, as a plantation crop, was developed to a much higher level of productivity than coconut and retains attractive profitability which is supporting continuing expansion, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia. Even so, the coconut retains a vital role and high status in small communities throughout the tropics as a life-supporting resource and also as a means to generate a modest income-on-demand for the small-holder farmers.

Productivity for the oil market
The productivity of the coconut in a plantation environment is constrained by its basic anatomy and physiology which evolved to ensure its survival and fruitfulness on strand environments combined with a capacity to disseminate seeds to new locations via the ocean. The wild-type coconut invests its energy in a prolific root system capable of a strong grip while exploring the soil widely and deeply, a dense but remarkably flexible trunk to help orient the resilient crown to reduce the pressure of potentially destructive wind. The fronds have a very robust rachis (stem) to cope with wind assault, while also being designed [by nature] to separate from the trunk under extreme wind stress. Perhaps the coconut palm could be described as a first class choice for second class environmental conditions? It copes with highly alkaline sandy soil, proximity to the sea, alternating seasonal drought and high rainfall, fluctuating humidity, high light intensity, and the assault of cyclonic wind. It is not surprising that small-holders are very attached
to the palm for their survival. In a plantation configuration a single coconut palm develops only three-quarters of the active leaf area of
an oil palm, while the latter is far better equipped, by its evolution in the rainforests of West Africa, to achieve sustained productivity while crowded together. Hybrid coconuts yield much more than others but still are not competitive with the productivity of the oil palm. The coconut achieves 25% less light interception and 25% less biomass production, of which 8-10% of new biomass comprises oil, compared with 18% for the oil palm, implying that for oil yield alone the oil palm's potential is more than double that of the coconut. This weak position of coconut productivity is mitigated somewhat by the higher value of its by-products, comprising kernel residue, shell, peat and fibre. Coconut water is an alternative product mostly extracted from the immature fruit, which has little by-product value except as raw mulch, but strong demand has resulted in profitable ventures in coconut water production, particularly in India and Brazil.

A palm with charisma
The coconut is a favourite outdoor ornamental in many tropical locations, increasing the visual amenity of streetscapes and beach-side resorts. It has come to symbolize the relaxed and indulgent life-style that many visitors from cooler and more crowded places are seeking for their holiday. Unfortunately a misguided assessment of the risk that failing fruit might pose to the passers-by in these places has led to zealous pruning of fruit from the palms, at the behest of insurance providers in north Queensland for example. Whereas simple guard barriers and clear signage indicating possible areas of risk should suffice, resort managers and local authorities have bowed to the demand for "zero risk" resulting in palms being twice-yearly denuded of fruit. This fruit loss leads to development of a crown comprising widely-spaced up-swept fronds which together resemble more a giant feather duster than the lovely spherical crown of a productive palm.

Resilience and adaptability
The relative isolation of the coconut from competing plants and marauding microfauna and microflora in its evolutionary incubator on the strands of the Tethys sea has resulted in a plant which suffers much from the attacks of many insects, fungi and other micro-organisms when intensively managed. The coconut has very few "obligate enemies", meaning life forms that are specific to itself. On the other hand some pests, including the rhinoceros beetle, palm weevil, locusts, leaf miners, sucking and scale insects find the coconut very attractive among the many species that they are capable of attacking. There are some examples, however, where the coconut has developed tolerance to a particular hostile organism, indicating a prolonged association of the palm and the organism. A case in point is the Foliar Decay virus of coconut which is unique to some islands in Vanuatu. The local coconut populations showed
no symptoms of harm and indeed the presence of the virus was only detected in the 1980s, when the virus attacked all introduced varieties of coconut, causing death. The virus was identified and described by an Australian research group from Adelaide.

A most nutritious dietary component
The most contentious aspect of recent coconut history is its misguided demonization by competing vegetable oil marketers depicting it as an unhealthy food risking heart disease. Laboratory animals fed a diet in which the sole fat was hydrogenated coconut oil became unhealthy, in contrast to others on a sole soy fat diet. The saturated fat hypothesis, "that such fats raise serum cholesterol, which in turn gives rise to heart disease" was being developed at the time of that trial and this result fitted expectation. With aggressive advertising marketers of unsaturated fats, especially soy, were able to take over the market share of coconut (and many animal fats as well) in USA and further afield. That campaign continues to this day in spite of indisputable evidence that millions of inhabitants of tropical coastal places have enjoyed life free from heart disease on a diet that has included a high proportion of coconut oil. The
difference of their diet from the coconut diet in the original trial is that the traditional diet includes fish, rich in ω-3 oil, a component not found in coconut oil but present in soy oil. The realization of the essential role of ω-3 fatty acids and also ω-6 (present only in minute concentration in coconut) fatty acids has presented a feasible explanation for the good health of coconut users on a varied fat diet. Nevertheless the perception persists among many health professionals and consumers that coconut oil should be avoided. This is most unfortunate as the unique medium-chain (small molecule) fatty acids of coconut oil can make a remarkable contribution to good health. There is evidence from rigorous laboratory studies that these fatty acids boost body energy in Type 2 diabetes sufferers, and innumerable case studies support the value of coconut oil.
In summary the coconut stands out among palms, and indeed among plants generally, as a most attractive contributor to visual amenity of a landscape and a most valuable food source. To that could be added all the other products and uses made of practically every one of its anatomical parts. This places the coconut as an outstanding member of the palm family and indeed a member of the short list of plants which have contributed to human economy and culture in both ornamental and life-supporting roles.

Further reading:
Dowe HL and Smith LT (2002) A brief history of the coconut palm in Australia. Palms: 46(3) 134-138
Foale MA and Ashburner GR (2005) The Coconut Palm. In: Handbook of Industrial Crops. The Howarth Press Inc. Binghampton New York pp 235-294
Foale, Mike (2003) The Coconut Odyssey - the bounteous possibilities of the tree of life. ACIAR: Canberra. Available online as a pdf file from www.aciar.gov.au/publication/MN101
Foale, Mike and Harries, Hugh. (2008) Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing profile for Coconut. Online at - http://agroforestry.net/scps/Coconut speciality crop.pdf
Friend D and Corley R11V (2004) Measuring coconut palm dry matter production. Exp. Agric. 30:223235
Harries K and Paull RE (2008) Cocos nucifera Coconut. pp 107-118 In: J Janick & R E Paull (Eds) The Encyclopedia of Fruit and Nuts. Oxford University Press, USA.
McGillivray (1852) Voyage of the Rattlesnake. London
Mohd. Basri Wahidl, Siti Nor Akmar Abdullah2 and 1. E. Henson (2004) Oil Palm Achievements and Potential. Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science Congress, 26 Sep 1 Oct 2004, Brisbane, Australia. Published on CDROM. Web site: www.cropscience.orp,.au
Thozet (1869) Journal of Botany
Turner N et all (2009) Enhancement of Muscle Mitochondrial Oxidative Capacity and
Alterations in Insulin Action Are Lipid Species Dependent: Potent Tissue-Specific Effects of Medium-Chain Fatty Acids. Diabetes November 2009 58:2547-2554

2.0 Characteristics of Tall coconuts and Dwarf coconuts
Characteristic Tall coconuts
Dwarf coconuts
Bearing intervals Continuous, all stages at any time
May be irregular
Bearing time after planting 5-7 years 3-4 years
Fruit size Small to large Small to medium
Harvesting Difficult if not mechanized Easy
Height, mature height 15-22 metres < 8 metres
Intercropping activities Legumes, fruits, spices, pasture grass, cocoa Grazing cattle
Intercropping potential Higher Lower
Life, productive life <50 years <30 years
Life, to senile age 60-70 years 30-40 years
Life span, death of palm
80-100 years < 50 years
Logging suitability High Low
Oil content 66-70% 65%
Planting density, grid 7-10 metres 5.5 metres
Planting density 160 palms / ha (8 m grid) 330 palms / ha
Pollination Cross-pollinating Self-pollinating
Storm damage Lower risk Higher risk
Use by smallholders Wide use
Limited use
Yield, plantation, av. 9,700 nuts / ha 11,000 nuts / ha
Yield, plantation, av. > 150 g copra / nut 90-120 g copra / nut
Yield, plantation, av. 2.8 tons copra / ha 2.9 tons copra / ha
Yield, smallholder 0.8-0.9 tons copra / ha little used

15.1 Fatty acids in coconut oil and other oils
Percentage proportion of edible fatty acids in the oil of natural products
Source
Caprylic C8
Capric C10
Lauric C12
Myristic C14
Palmitic C16
Stearic C18
Oleic
C18
Linoleic C182

α-Linoleic C183
Coconut
08
7
49
18
8
2
6
2
.
Soy
.
.
.
.
11
4
23
53
8
Maize
.
.
.
.
12 2
28
57
1
Peanut
.
.
.
.
12
5
46
31
.
Butter
1
2
3
12
16
12
45
10
1
Trivial name, systemic name
Caprylic acid, octanoic acid, CH3(CH2)6COOH, saturated fatty acid
Capric acid, decanoic acid, CH3(CH2)8COOH, saturated fatty acid
Lauric acid, dodecanoic acid, CH3(CH2)10COOH saturated fatty acid
Myristic acid, tetradecanoic acid, CH3(CH3)12COOH, saturated fatty acid
Palmitic acid, hexadecanoic acid, CH3(CH2)14COOH, saturated fatty acid
Stearic acid, octadecanoic acid, CH3(CH2)16COOH, saturated fatty acid
Oleic acid, cis-octadec-9-enoic acid, cis-09-octodecanoic acid, CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH, mono-unsaturated fatty acid
Linoleic acid, CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)7COOH, polyunsaturated fatty acid
α-Linoleic acid CH3(CH2)CH=CH(CH2)CH=CH(CH2)CH=CH(CH2)7COOH, polyunsaturated fatty acid
The melting point of unrefined coconut oil melts is about 25oC and the smoke point is 170oC, but 232oC if refined. Coconut oil is a comparatively stable oil that oxidizes slowly and becomes rancid slowly because of the high saturated fatty acid content. However, for long periods it should be stored solid below 25oC.
Nutritionist Lisa Guy writes in the "body + soul" supplement of the Sunday Mail, Brisbane, February 19, 2012:
Until recently, coconut oil was frowned on by health professionals because it contains a high level of saturated fat. Research now shows the saturated fat in coconut oil consists mainly of medium chain fatty acids, which the body can quickly digest and convert into energy. These acids are metabolized differently to other fats and are not stored as body fat. Including coconut oil in your daily diet can increase metabolism and enhance weight loss. It's ideal for cooking due to its stability at high temperatures. It's perfect for
roasting vegetables or adding to Asian-style stir-fries or smoothies."

18.1 Roots (adventitious roots)
embryo --> radicle (dies) cotyledon sheath --> adventitious roots main roots, primary roots root = root cap, root tip + absorbing hypodermis + red impervious hypodermis

trunk -->
bole, swollen base of stem internodes --> adventitious roots main roots, primary roots root = root cap, root tip + absorbing hypodermis + red impervious hypodermis

trunk -->
bole, swollen base of stem internodes --> adventitious roots lateral roots, main root branches --> rootlets root = root cap, root tip + absorbing hypodermis + red impervious hypodermis

trunk -->
bole, swollen base of stem internodes --> adventitious roots lateral roots --> air breathing roots, pneumathodes, whitish lumps

18.2 Stems (trunks)
single growing point, growing bud, central bud, main bud, vegetative bud, terminal bud, terminal meristem, apical bud, "cabbage" tip of old stem narrows to "pencil point"
trunk --> leaf scars
trunk --> leaf axils (where the leaf meets the stem)
trunk --> monocotyledon series of joints "node + leaf + internode" up the stem, internodes very short
bole, swollen base of stem --> roots .

18.3 Leaves (fronds)
All leaves from a leaf crown
cotyledon --> first green leaf seedling leaf and all leaves at first entire, fused leaflets, in fibrous leaf sheath, spear ---> leaf or frond, sword leaf, in terminal crown
leaflets, pinnae 1. lamina leaf or frond, sword leaf, in terminal crown
midrib, rachis 1. lamina leaf or frond, sword leaf, in terminal crown
-. 2. leaf stalk, petiole leaf or frond, sword leaf, in terminal crown

-
3. leaf base + fibrous sheath leaf or frond, sword leaf, in terminal crown

18.4 Inflorescence (flowers)
Monoecious, male and female flowers
male flowers (200 to 300) P 3+3, A 3 + 3 inflorescence, flower bunch, flower cluster spadix inflorescence in axil of each leaf, 1-2 metres long
female flowers (20 to 50) P3 + 3, G1 inflorescence, flower bunch, flower cluster spadix inflorescence in axil of each leaf, 1-2 metres long
main axis, main stalk, peduncle --> rachis --> lateral branches, spadix branch, flower stem --> flowers inflorescence, flower bunch, flower cluster spadix inflorescence in axil of each leaf, 1-2 metres long
lateral branches inflorescence, flower bunch, flower cluster spadix inflorescence in axil of each leaf, 1-2 metres long
outer sheath of spathe sterile spathe, bract enclosing inflorescence, 1- 5 metres long spadix inflorescence in axil of each leaf, 1-2 metres long
inner sheath of spathe fertile spathe, bract enclosing inflorescence spadix inflorescence in axil of each leaf, 1-2 metres long

18.5 Seed and fruit (drupe)
exocarp, rind, smooth skin . . fruit, seed nut, fibrous drupe, button coconut
mesocarp, fibre and pith, husk (coir) . . fruit, seed nut, fibrous drupe, button coconut
endocarp, hard shell, . "nut", round coconut, dehusked coconut fruit, seed nut, fibrous drupe, button coconut
embryo seed "nut", round coconut, dehusked coconut fruit, seed nut, fibrous drupe, button coconut
testa, brown seed coat seed "nut", round coconut, dehusked coconut fruit, seed nut, fibrous drupe, button coconut
meat (kernel, endosperm)
white flesh
seed "nut", round coconut, dehusked coconut fruit, seed nut, fibrous drupe, button coconut
cotyledon --> haustorium, button, apple, egg seed "nut", round coconut, dehusked coconut fruit, seed nut, fibrous drupe, button coconut
coconut water, coconut water, liquid endosperm,
"coconut milk"
seed "nut", round coconut, dehusked coconut fruit, seed nut, fibrous drupe, button coconut