Chemistry Senior syllabus (html version)
2007-08-21
Board of Senior Secondary School Studies, Queensland, Australia
This material is copyright. It may be copied freely for the use of schools in Queensland. It may not be reproduced for sale without express permission.
General Implementation syllabus (1995, PDF 973 K) ISBN 0 7242 6358 6
[This html version has been edited to be consistent with other items in this website. Queensland teachers should refer to the official PDF version from the internet or use the official printed version.]
Updated: 2006-06-07
Please send comments to: J.Elfick@uq.edu.au

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Contents

Preface | FLOW CHART 1.0 A view of science 2.0 Rationale 3.0 Global aims 4.0 General objectives 5.0 Learning experiences 5.1 Selection of learning experiences in Chemistry 6.0 Core requirements 6.1 Core topics 6.2 Elective topics Topic 1 Materials - Properties, Bonding and Structure Topic 2 Reacting Quantities and Chemical Analysis Topic 3 Oxidation and Reduction Topic 4 Organic Chemistry Topic 5 Chemical Periodicity Topic 6 Gases and the Atmosphere Topic 7 Energy and Rates of Chemical Topic 8 Chemical Equilibrium

8.0 Assessment 8.1 Underlying principles 8.2 Assessment instruments 8.3 Exit Levels of Achievement 8.4 Manipulative skills 8.5 Trade-offs 8.6 Special considerations 8.7 Student review folio 8.8 Summary | FLOW CHART 9.0 Work program requirements 9.01 Specific objectives 9.02 Time emphases 9.03 Learning experiences 9.04 Assessment review / overview 9.05 Assessment plan 9.06 Exit levels of achievement Table 9: Minimum standards associated with exit criteria 9.1 Summary 10.0 Educational Equity 11a.0 Resources 11.0 Glossary

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Preface FLOW CHART
1.0 A view of science
2.0 Rationale
Chemistry is the study of matter and its interactions. Because humans live in this material universe, chemistry is central to understanding the phenomena of the reactions of matter. It therefore provides a link with other branches of natural science. Students should come to understand that no real distinction can be made between 'chemicals' and matter.
Chemistry possesses a theoretical framework that allows new knowledge to be organized and related to other aspects of the discipline. The modern chemical approach seeks an understanding of natural phenomena -- in the test-tube, in the crust of the earth or in living organisms, and in terms of the events at the atomic and molecular level. The course should enable students to appreciate the power of this way of thinking and investigating. Chemistry remains a growing discipline, with exciting and unexpected developments on its frontiers. It is a discipline in which students may experience beauty at many levels, whether in comprehending the ordered structure of matter, or in what they see in their own experiments.
A knowledge of chemistry can assist students in understanding and interpreting many experiences in their everyday surroundings, thus enriching their daily lives. Chemistry is intimately involved in extractive, refining and manufacturing industries, which provide our food, clothing and many of the articles we use daily. These industries are important to our economy. Students should come to appreciate the impact of chemical knowledge and technology on their society.
The impact of human activities on our environment has not always been benign. Responsible decisions on possible future activities can be made, among other things, in the light of the fullest understanding of the chemical consequences of those activities. Problems have sometimes arisen in the past because of the limitations of our chemical understanding. The solutions to these problems will usually require the application of chemical knowledge. An understanding of chemistry will assist students to participate as informed and responsible citizens in making decisions in which economic benefit and the quality of the environment are considered. The Senior Chemistry course will provide a foundation for students who will proceed to tertiary level courses in science, engineering or health sciences.

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3.0 Global aims
Students come from varied geographical, socioeconomic, sociocultural and language backgrounds. Their background legitimately and significantly influences the nature of learning within the school context for themselves and others.
A study of a senior science should provide an opportunity for and assistance in the further development of students' abilities to access, process and communicate information so that they may be culturally and scientifically informed and aware.
To achieve these global aims, Senior Physics should provide learning experiences that will assist students to develop:
* the ability to recall specific knowledge and apply this in simple situations
* scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and appropriate attitudes and values
* proficiency and safety in the use of field and laboratory equipment and other resources
* English language and physics specific language skills through explicit teaching of, and immersion in, the language of chemistry.
The global aims are expressed via the general objectives and developed at the school level by the work program's specific objectives.

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4.0 General objectives
5.0 Learning experiences

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5.1 Learning experiences in Chemistry
The selection of resource material to support a course in Chemistry will be governed to some extent by local factors. It is unlikely that there is a single student or teacher resource that can be universally applied to schools' programs. Schools should draw upon their own resources as well as use the suggestions made within the layout of each syllabus core topic. General community resources (for example, libraries, museums and science centres as well as CSIRO), popular science periodicals and electronic media material are all available.
Chemistry is a practical science. A significant amount of the course should be devoted to practical experiences in the laboratory. These practical exercises expose students to a variety of hazards from corrosive and poisonous substances through to injury from cut glass and hot objects. Besides a teacher's 'duty of care' that derives from the Education (General Provisions) Act 1989, there are other legislative and regulatory requirements, for example the Workplace, Health and Safety Act 1989, and Material Safety Data Sheets, that will influence the nature and extent of practical work.
Practical laboratory experiences should be selected and conducted with student safety in mind. A significant component of the course should allow students to gain knowledge about the dangers of chemicals and laboratory procedures used. The safe handling of chemicals and equipment should be a component of manipulative skills checklists.

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6.1 Core topics
There are eight core topics. Minimum time allocations range from 10 to 25 hours. They
are:

Core topics	Minimum time allocation
1. Materials - Properties, Bonding and Structure 2. Reacting Quantities and Chemical Analysis 3. Oxidation and Reduction 4. Organic Chemistry 5. Chemical Periodicity 6. Gases and the Atmosphere 7. Energy and Rates of Chemical Reactions 8. Chemical Equilibrium	20 hours 20 hours 15 hours 10 hours 10 hours 15 hours 25 hours 25 hours
Total	130 hours

The mandatory core represents 60 per cent of the course.
The Part A section of each core topic requires that application of theoretical scientific knowledge or a science technology society (STS) emphasis occurs within learning experiences. It is expected that different courses may address Part A and Part B aspects for each core topic with different time emphases. Some courses may address the Part A aspect from several core topics via a thematic approach. Other courses may highlight Part A aspects in one or two core topics and address Part A in other core topics to a lesser extent. Whichever approach is used, the Part A emphasis for the total course must contribute significantly to the total core time allocation and be clearly outlined.
The Part B section of each core topic requires the listing of the compulsory knowledge objectives, associated scientific processes and complex reasoning processes, and manipulative skills objectives chosen by the school.
Each core topic has an introduction and overview of subject matter. These describe the context for the scientific, historical, social and practical applications of each topic. Broad connections with other core topics, as well as other scientific disciplines, are suggested.
By their very nature, core topic titles are arbitrary. However, they are a necessary structural element for any syllabus and hence any work program outlining a detailed course of study. Because schools will choose different texts and resources, which will be organized into chapters, units and topics with a diversity of titles, the eight core topics of this syllabus have been chosen to reflect broad groupings of traditional' topic headings. For those using 'traditional' texts, this will allow grouping of a number of text chapter headings under syllabus core topic headings. Different combinations of text chapter headings are likely - either for schools using different texts, or for schools using the same text.
Schools choosing a multi-text / resource approach, a thematic approach, or an issues based approach will also be able to organize and communicate the elements of their courses using the eight core topics. Such courses should be easier to devise without the constraints of a greater number of more specific chapter headings.
These core topics will allow maximum flexibility for schools to choose their own scope and sequence while maintaining comparability of the basic elements of all chemistry courses throughout the State.
Core topic specific objectives are presented in three columns under the performance dimension headings of:
* knowledge objectives (mandatory)
* scientific processes (suggestions only)
* complex reasoning processes (suggestions only).
Schools must include all knowledge objectives listed in the syllabus. These will be augmented by additional knowledge objectives, depending on the elective topics chosen.
Some scientific processes and complex reasoning processes objectives are provided for each core topic as a guide for teachers. It is expected that a more extensive listing would be needed to describe fully a school's set of learning experiences. The specific objectives must contribute to all the general objectives outlined in section 4.
Manipulative skills objectives must be written to include all the mandatory skills
listed in parts A and B (see section 8.4).

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6.2 Elective topics
Schools will select their own elective material to complete the remaining 40 per cent of their course. Electives may be core related or non-corerelated. Possible core related topics have been listed after the core topic objectives. These are suggestions only.
They are neither exhaustive nor prescriptive. Suggestions include topics that:
* are specifically Australian
* reflect recent developments or discoveries
* are issues related, or society- and technology related
* are historically important
* are student relevant
* provide more detailed development of fundamental chemical theories
* are interdisciplinary
* are industrially/economically important, or
* are career related.
These suggestions indicate the depth and breadth of chemistry related and chemistry steeped topics that could be chosen to develop students' awareness and understanding of chemical theory, application and relevance. Appropriate selection of locally relevant elective material should help fulfil the syllabus' overall aims to develop students' knowledge of chemistry, their ability to think and solve life related problems, and to be socially aware and scientifically literate.
Objectives for knowledge of subject matter, scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills must be written for elective material and will include examples that contribute to all the general objectives outlined in section 4.0 . Once identified by a school, elective topics become a significant aspect of the course, and as such must contribute to the summative assessment.
While schools may select their own elective topics, it would be inappropriate if these electives concentrated on only one or two topics within the two year course. It is likely that most schools would select one or two elective topics for each semester. Some schools may cover all the mandatory core topics first, before addressing elective topics. Others may introduce some elective units interspersed through the core topics. Some schools may have an increasing amount of elective material towards the end of their course. This has implications for assessment schema (see section 8). Appropriate care should be exercised in determining the course's overall scope and sequence with consideration given to the cognitive development and maturity of students, foundational chemical knowledge and problem solving abilities, as well as the validity of assessment information gathered from different elements of the course, and at different times throughout the course.
Finally, suggested learning experiences have been included. There is a diversity of potential learning modes and environments, and schools are encouraged to consider the fullest range practicably possible for their students.

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Topic 1 Materials - Properties, Bonding and Structure
Introduction
All that physically exists is composed of matter - including stars, planets and all living organisms. People throughout history, and in different cultures, have classified the materials that they have encountered in their daily existence. These classifications have been based on the observed properties, as well as the practical use of these materials. Materials suitable for food, clothing, shelter, weapons and tools, production of fire, medicine, pigments, and decorative and aesthetic purposes were identified and categorized. Knowledge about their properties and application was constructed and passed from generation to generation. Widespread applications of certain materials have been identified as milestones of various human cultures. The use of fire and the various 'ages', including the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, are such examples. Application of the latest developments in the technology of materials has led to the naming of our current century as the 'Space Age'.
Chemistry, as a current scientific discipline, has grown from older technologies of materials and their applications. European alchemists sought to convert base metals to gold. The extraction, naming and describing of the properties of certain elements, acids and inorganic salts are due to the efforts of early Arabian, European and Oriental philosophers and scientists. The medical properties of plant, animal and mineral substances have been described by, among others, Egyptian priests, medieval community midwives, and aboriginal medicine men and women throughout the world.
The history of the development of current atomic models of structure and bonding is one of human endeavour from the earliest times. Aristotle encouraged experimental and inductive explorations. Dalton propounded the existence of atoms. Robert Millikan and Ernest Rutherford provided early experimental evidence indicating the nature of atomic structure. Dorothy Crowfoot-Hodgkin pioneered the use of X-ray crystallography in studying penicillin, allowing the synthesis of penicillin and new antibiotics on a large scale, as well as describing the structure of insulin and vitamin B12. Chien-Shiung Wu is noted for her work in particle physics, X-rays and beta decay.
Notions of energy related to the numbers and relative position of electrons seek to predict and explain whether and under what conditions a chemical reaction will occur. Such predictions are possible because of the direct link between an underlying structure and the nature of the bonds holding atoms and molecules together.
Chemistry is the study of the interaction of different materials. Observation of recurring properties and types of interactions enable predictions to be made about the nature and quantities of products of reactions. A knowledge of the properties of a general category of matter allows the designing of new substances with specific purposes; for example, new metal alloys, plastics, medicines and drugs, and construction materials. Substances previously unknown, or whose effects were not understood or appreciated, are continually being identified and described by chemists. Recognition of the importance of the ozone layer and the high altitude chemistry of CFCs occurred because of chemical research. A study of organic substances, including proteins and their synthesis and application in living organisms, adds to the knowledge of life itself.

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Subject matter
Students should become familiar with the main categories of matter. A knowledge of the full range of categories of matter and their general properties will also be developed in other core topics; e.g. Organic Chemistry. Students should be able to recognize and describe examples of bonding and be able to relate the principles of atomic structure and bonding to substances or reactions that have relevance or interest to them.
CORE: (Minimum time for A plus B of 20 hours) The time spent on A and B need not be comparable.
Students should:
A. either
for a particular material, relate its properties used in specific applications to its structure at the atomic or molecular level
or
in writing, orally or in some other manner, demonstrate an understanding of the development of a new material and its impact on society
AND
B. meet the knowledge objectives listed in column 1 in Table 1 together with associated scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills objectives of the school's choosing. (For any of these, this may be achieved through specific separate treatment; by incorporation in the activity in A; by treatment through an elective; or through a theme topic that draws upon several core topics.)
Table 1 lists mandatory knowledge objectives in column 1 and presents suggestions that may be used to develop scientific processes (column 2) and complex reasoning processes (column 3).
Table 1

Column 1 Knowledge objectives (mandatory)	Column 2 Scientific processes (suggestions only)	Column 3 Complex reasoning processes (suggestions only)
Students should be able to: 1.1 explain how elements, mixtures and compounds can be differentiated experimentally 1.2 recall the names, symbols and formulae of common elements, ions and compounds 1.3 describe, compare and contrast the physical properties of different types of materials 1.4 explain the physical properties of metals, ionic compounds, covalent molecular substances and covalent network substances in terms of their respective bonding models 1.5 describe the structure of the atom in terms of its component elementary particles -- protons, neutrons, electrons 1.6 explain the terms atomic number, mass number, isotope, electron shell, electron configuration 1.7 deduce the particle components and electron configuration of atoms given atomic number and mass number 1.8 describe the nature of the major chemical bonds and their associated bond energies 1.9 describe the nature of single and multiple covalent bonds in simple molecules 1.10 draw electron dot diagrams and Lewis valence structures for simple inorganic and organic molecules 1.11 draw the shapes of simple covalent molecules 1.12 compare and contrast the properties of polar and non-polar compounds and use models of intermolecular bonding to explain these properties.	Students may: * process experimental data and classify materials in appropriate bonding categories * design experiments to separate different types of mixtures * design experimental tests to determine the bonding classification of a substance * use properties of different materials to predict their possible uses in everyday life * translate a multistep extraction/separation process from text to diagram and vice versa	Students may: * use the relationship between properties and structure to interpret trends in experimental data and to explain anomalies * justify the choice of particular materials in industry by selecting and analysing relevant technological data and processes * suggest materials that are suitable for given applications and justify their selection

Electives (suggestions only)
* evidence supporting atomic theory
* the historical development of theories of atomic structure
* alloys
* metal fatigue
* modern ceramics
* glass
* concrete
* optical fibres
* surfactants and detergents
* superconductors
* fibres
* inorganic and organic polymers
* biodegradable materials
* disposable nappies
* clothing materials
* allotropes (e.g. carbon)
* crystal
* Do atoms exist?
* VSEPR theory
Learning experiences (suggestions only)
* perform experiments illustrating differences between elements, compounds, mixtures
* perform experiments to determine simple physical properties of materials
* separate mixtures using suitable techniques (e.g. distillation, chromatography, filtration, solubility)
* use 3-D models of ionic lattices, covalent network lattices and covalent molecules
* grow crystals

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Topic 2 Reacting Quantities and Chemical Analysis
Introduction
An extra 'glug' of rum or brandy in the Christmas pudding, lowering the salt or sugar content in a favourite biscuit recipe, or substituting margarine for butter, may all have no discernible effect and so go unnoticed. An extra 'glug' of nitro in the glycerine, lowering the methyl benzene content of petrol, or substituting hydrogen for helium, will have discernible effects and will certainly be noticed! The amounts, as well as the nature of all reacting species present in a reaction, are paramount in determining if a reaction will occur, the nature of the products, and their amounts. Knowledge of the atomic model, principles of mass conservation, and stoichiometry have developed because of the empirical methods used in measuring masses and volumes of reactants and products. Observations that the quantities as well as kinds of reactants influenced chemical reactions led to the development of notions of Avogadro's Law, moles and molarity. It was observed that concentration affected reactions, as did the presence of energy - in the form of heat or light.
A language and a system of notation have been developed to represent chemical reactions. Formulae and equations using letters and numbers represent the kinds and numbers of particles present in a reaction. Other symbols represent the nature of the substances present; for example, if they are precipitates, gases or species in aqueous solution. Precision and accuracy in measurements of mass and volume allow control of product yields. Part of the mystique and intrigue of chemistry comes from this arcane symbolism. It can fire the passion and motivation of some students. It can also be alienating and frightening to others. Teachers of Chemistry are steeped in this symbolism and its application is second nature. Not only are students being exposed to new concepts about unseen (and unseeable) activities of atoms and molecules, but the mode of presentation is effectively in a second language (and this will be even more problematical for students whose first language is not English).
The exact nature of unknown substances can be determined by performing a sequence of reactions. Such analyses are based on knowledge about which chemical species reacts with others, and knowing if a precipitate, or a gas, or a change in solution colour will occur. There is an exciting atmosphere of challenge and discovery with this kind of chemical detective work. Much of the public's image of science is that of the analytical investigation of substance X! This image can be a powerful and motivating one for students interested in science in general, and chemistry in particular. If students experience the excitement and passion (and success!) of chemical analyses, within the discipline of ordered, empirical quantitative chemistry, then they can more readily construct links between this and the other core topics. To that extent, this core topic provides a language and notational platform as well as an experiential base for Energy and Rates of Chemical Reactions, Chemical Equilibrium, and Oxidation and Reduction. With this comes the development of, and appreciation for, the 'rigour' of chemistry.

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Subject matter
Students should become familiar with the concepts, units of measurement and use of concentration information in calculations involving quantities of reactants and products. They should be able to write correct formulae and balanced equations. Students will study the mole concept and should be able to describe the evidence that has led to its construction. This core topic is likely to allow significant experience to be gained through practical investigations leading to the development of a range of manipulative skills that should include volumetric and mass measurements. Other manipulative skills that could be developed include filtering, decanting, crystallizing and distilling. Concomitant with practical activities in the laboratory will be the development of observational skills, data collection and the accepted format, language and conventions of report writing. It is desirable that appropriate safety practices will be developed through the laboratory experiences of this core topic.
CORE: (Minimum time for A plus B of 20 hours) The time spent on A and B need not be comparable.
Students should:
A. either
discuss the development and application of a modern instrumental method of chemical analysis
or
in writing, orally or in some other manner, demonstrate how chemical analytical techniques can inform those responsible for environmental and consumer protection
AND
B. meet the knowledge objectives listed in column 1 in table 2 together with associated scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills objectives of the school's choosing. (For any of these, this may be achieved through specific separate treatment; by incorporation in the activity in A; by treatment through an elective; or through a theme topic that draws upon several core topics.)
Table 2 lists mandatory knowledge objectives in column 1 and presents suggestions that may be used to develop scientific processes (column 2) and complex reasoning processes (column 3).
Table 2

Column 1 Knowledge objectives (mandatory)	Column 2 Scientific processes (suggestions only)	Column 3 Complex reasoning processes (suggestions only)
Students should be able to: 2.1 explain the terms: relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass and relative formula mass, mole, molar mass, molar volume, Avogadro's Number, molarity, empirical and molecular formulae 2.2 solve simple problems involving relationships between moles, mass, volume, number of particles and molarity of solution 2.3 balance chemical equations 2.4 explain the information contained in a chemical equation 2.5 use the molar relationships in a balanced chemical equation to calculate unknown amounts or concentrations of the species involved 2.6 describe the correct techniques and procedures for volumetric and gravimetric analyses:	Students may: * predict and identify chemical and physical changes from experimental observations * collect and interpret data from a volumetric analysis * collect and interpret data from a gravimetric analysis * determine empirical and molecular formulae by processing experimental data * design simple experiments to analyse unknown solutions * identify sources of error in simple analytical procedures	Students may: * perform multistep analytical procedures and calculations * solve challenging problems involving percentage yield in synthetic reaction processes * identify the formula of an unknown compound from complex analytical data

Electives (suggestions only)
* instrumental analysis (e.g. IR, MS, AA, ICP, HPLC, GLC, colorimetric)
* column and thin layer chromatographic analysis
* quantitative analysis of the acid content of food and drinks
* waste water analysis
* analysis of metal composition of steels and alloys
* vitamin C content in foods
* fat content in foods
* chemical assay of drugs (e.g. aspirin)
* alcohol content of beverages
* conductimetric analysis
* acid-base titrations using pH meter
* soil analysis
* the breathalyser
* analysis of SO₂ in wine
* electrophoresis and DNA fingerprinting
* chromatographic analysis of food additives
* qualitative analysis (e.g. flame tests)
* forensic chemistry
* different ways of expressing concentration (e.g. ppm, normality, % weight for weight, % weight for volume)
* traditional 'wet chemistry' analytical procedures for identifying unknown inorganic salts
Learning experiences (suggestions only)
* perform volumetric analyses
* perform gravimetric analyses
* perform chromatographic analyses
* visit a local industrial or research analytical laboratory
* conduct a local environmental chemical analysis
* visit a forensic laboratory

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Topic 3 Oxidation and Reduction
Introduction
Chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons are oxidation reduction
reactions. Oxidizing agents are atoms or ions that take up electrons during such reactions, while reducing agents are those that supply the electrons for such reactions. The oxidation state of a reacting species is indicated by an oxidation number. Oxidation numbers can be used to balance equations that are not obvious by inspection. Some oxidation reduction reactions occur spontaneously and can be used as a source of electrical energy. Electrochemical cells, commonly referred to as batteries, are responsible for the powering of transistor radios and walkmans, camera flash units, portable toys, electrical and electronic devices. There are varieties of electrochemical cells ranging from the 'wet' cells of the lead acid car battery, through to the 'dry' cell using zinc and carbon electrodes and the 'alkaline' battery. Improved technologies have allowed the development of smaller cells for use in pocket calculators, hearing aids and other medical and miniaturized electronic devices. Oxidation reduction reactions that are not spontaneous can be forced to react by an electric current. These electrolytic processes are important in many industrial applications including chrome and silver plating. A common laboratory demonstration is the electrolysis of water into its constituents of hydrogen and oxygen. Similar industrial applications of electrolysis include the production of aluminium and chlorine. Everyday occurrences of oxidation reduction reactions include rusting of iron or other metals becoming coated in an oxide, bleaching, or the reaction of lead sinkers and salt water on the floor of an aluminium 'tinny'. Research continues into understanding the production and transmission of nervous impulses in animals and many biochemical reactions that are redox in nature.

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Subject matter
Students should gain an understanding of oxidation reduction reactions and develop skills in balancing the equations that represent them. Students should be familiar with the definitions of oxidation and reduction and their basis of electron transfer. Through balancing redox reactions by the half reaction method, students should develop concepts of conservation of mass, electrons and charge. Accumulation of experimental data from electrolytic experiments (for example, the quantitative application of Faraday's Law) should be the basis of students' understanding why the use of these arbitrary techniques can be justified. In this way students will not come to believe that the oxidation number represents an actual charge. Students should be able to use tables of half reactions and be able to determine if reactions occur spontaneously and what the resultant potential will be. They should be able to rank substances as being stronger or weaker oxidizing (or reducing) agents.
Optional studies might include extractive metallurgy. Few metals are found free in nature. Metal oxides and sulfides are reduced by a variety of processes. Some students will be able to visit smelters or other extractive factories. Alternatively, mining and refining information might be available from a variety of commercial and government agencies. Mining weeks, or other regional or state focused mining activities might be useful to show students the commercial application of redox chemistry. Students interested in environmental chemistry might like to study the implications of millions of batteries being discarded annually, or of the corrosion of metal car bodies dumped as landfill, or the electrochemistry of the atmosphere. Students interested in physics and technology might investigate battery technology as part of a project based on ergonomic efficiency, or linked with solar/wind/geothermal technologies.
CORE: (Minimum time for A plus B of 15 hours) The time spent on A and B need not be comparable.
Students should:
A. either
discuss the practical application of one or more reactions involving oxidation and reduction
or
present information on the extraction and refining of a metal from its ore
AND
B. meet the knowledge objectives listed in column 1 in table 3 together with associated scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills objectives of the school's choosing. (For any of these, this may be achieved through specific separate treatment; by incorporation in the activity in A; by treatment through an elective; or through a theme topic that draws upon several core topics.)
Table 3 lists mandatory knowledge objectives in column 1 and presents suggestions that may be used to develop scientific processes (column 2) and complex reasoning processes (column 3).
Table 3

Column 1 Knowledge objectives (mandatory)	Column 2 Scientific processes (suggestions only)	Column 3 Complex reasoning processes (suggestions only)
Students should be able to: 3.1 explain the meaning of the terms: oxidation number, oxidation, reduction, electron transfer, oxidizing agent (oxidant), reducing agent (reductant), electrochemical, galvanic, electrolytic, cell, anode, cathode, electrode, salt bridge 3.2 recall the rules for assigning oxidation numbers and apply them to calculate the oxidation numbers of elements in molecules and ions 3.3 write balanced half and net equations for reactions that take place in the solid state and in aqueous solution 3.4 determine the possibility of simple electrochemical reactions occurring using a reactivity series 3.5 draw fully labelled diagrams of galvanic and electrolytic cells demonstrating their principles of operation	Students may: * construct a reactivity series from information about the relative reactivity of a series of elements and ions * construct and use simple galvanic electrochemical and electrolytic cells from materials supplied * relate redox processes to commonly used cells	Students may: * interpret complex redox systems * design redox experiments to separate metal ions from solution * write and balance complex equations using oxidation numbers and / or half cell equations

Electives (suggestions only)
* mineral and ore extraction using redox processes (e.g. aluminium)
* the chemistry of photography
* the breathalyser
* explosives
* electroplating
* corrosion and corrosion prevention
* the carbon and nitrogen cycles
* fuel cells
* rechargeable cells
* the lead acid car battery
* Faraday's Law of Electrolysis
* useful chemicals from electrolysis
* the electrochemical series and reduction potentials
* redox titrations
* dissolution of lead from lead pipes
* weathering of copper roofs
* biological redox processes
* manganese nodules in the deep sea
* welding with the thermite reaction
* bleaching
* can O₂ be oxidized?
Learning experiences (suggestions only)
* perform simple redox reactions
* construct and measure the output of electrochemical cells
* perform a redox titration
* observe electrolytic decomposition
* perform electroplating experiments
* examine the contents of a dry cell or lead acid battery
* visit a mine, metal refinery, electroplating works

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Topic 4 Organic Chemistry
Introduction
Organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of carbon. Because of its bonding properties, chains of carbon atoms can be linked together in an almost infinite array of different configurations. Bonding with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, the halogens, the hydroxyl and other radicals produces a vast array of the chemicals of life. Proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and oils are all classes of organic substances. DNA, the coded blueprint for all living things, has its properties because of a unique double helix arrangement of two long spiral strands joined by energy binding bonds. Fossil fuels are rich and complex mixtures of organic chemicals. These are a source of energy, as well as being the building blocks of today's world of synthetic materials. Flavours and odours are due to properties of groups of organic chemicals including esters. Pheromones are chemical messengers used by a wide variety of animals. Sexual attraction of many species -- humans included -- involve these substances. Solvents, pharmaceuticals, paints, dyes, building materials, synthetic fabrics, plastics and a host of other human designed everyday substances are possible because of the application of organic chemistry.
While there is a bewildering array of organic compounds, a systematic classification of them based on their properties, which is in turn based on their structure, is possible. An international convention of nomenclature enables consistent naming and representation of structural and empirical formulae. A range of analytical procedures from chromatography to absorption spectroscopy allows investigation of molecular structure and bonds. A systematic application of knowledge of bonds and reactive properties allows the design and synthesis of new substances with the specific properties required for a particular application (e.g. an industrial adhesive). Other applications of this include the identification of natural insecticides and anti-mould agents.
Many careers are possible in the field of organic chemistry. These can include the food industries that are searching for the identity of tastes and flavours so that they can be duplicated. Some Queensland researchers are leaders in extracting and identifying the 'flavours' of tropical fruits. New careers are opening in the plastics industry -- from building materials to medical technology,
including prosthetic devices and reconstruction technologies.

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Subject matter
Students should become familiar with the IUPAC conventions for naming organic substances and representing their molecular structure. They should have experience of the general properties of the main organic groups and series. They should be able to describe the reactivities and energies associated with multiple bonds. Isomerism will be introduced. Significant practical work in the laboratory could occur with a range of synthesis and/or analytical work possible. Alternatively, literature research into the applications of organic chemistry to today's lifestyle and the preparation of written projects, or seminar presentations could enable students to investigate issues of interest and relevance to them. These could range from epoxy chemistry, food chemistry, analysis technology, biochemistry, medical applications, through to the problems of using plasticers in cling wrap, PET container recycling technology, or debating the use of paper cups versus Styrofoam ones! It is likely that through this core topic, links with the biological and environmental sciences, fuel technologies of physics, explorative and extractive technologies used by geologists and refining technologies of the fossil fuels industries can be established. Many lifestyle related issues, such as designer drugs or the labelling of food additives, could be studied. Marketplace or consumer chemistry could be used as an organizational theme.
CORE: (Minimum time for A plus B of 15 hours) The time spent on A and B need not be comparable.
Students should:
A. either
describe the properties, preparation or extraction and use of an organic compound and its significance to society
or
discover and present the variety of materials and chemicals with human application that may be obtained from a particular raw material (e.g. crude oil or coal)
AND
B. meet the knowledge objectives listed in column 1 in table 4 together with associated scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills objectives of the school's choosing. (For any of these, this may be achieved through specific separate treatment; by incorporation in the activity in A; by treatment through an elective; or through a theme topic that draws upon several core topics.)
Table 4 lists mandatory knowledge objectives in column 1 and presents suggestions that may be used to develop scientific processes (column 2) and complex reasoning processes (column 3).
Table 4

Column 1 Knowledge objectives (mandatory)	Column 2 Scientific processes (suggestions only)	Column 3 Complex reasoning processes (suggestions only)
Students should be able to: 4.1 write the general formulae for: alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, aldehydes, ketones and amides, and give simple examples of each 4.2 use IUPAC rules to name alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and simple alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, aldehydes, ketones and amides 4.3 explain the terms structural isomerism, geometrical isomerism, functional group, homologous series, saturated and unsaturated, substitution, addition, elimination, monomer, polymer, polymerization, repeat unit 4.4 recall simple physical properties of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, acids, addition and condensation polymers and relate these properties to structure 4.5 recall simple chemical properties of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, acids and esters 4.6 draw structures (or assemble 3-D models) of compounds listed in 4.1 4.7 identify the structural features and simple chemistry of some biochemical molecules (e.g. amino acids, proteins, fats, carbohydrates)	Students may: * identify functional groups from simple chemical tests * process and identify trends from data in tabular or graphical form * relate the properties of organic substances to their use and structure (e.g. solvents, polymers) * devise simple tests to identify unknown compounds (e.g. polymers) * debate the issues related to the disposal of hazardous material	Students may: * predict the products of multistep synthetic processes * use the relationship between properties and structure to interpret chemical reactivity of organic compounds * identify molecular and structural formulae of an unknown compound from quantitative and qualitative data

Electives (suggestions only)
* DNA and the historical account of its discovery
* drugs and medicine
* alcoholic beverages
* the breathalyser
* fossil fuels
* organic solvents
* dry cleaning solvents
* synthetic and natural fibres
* food chemistry
* the pharmaceutical industry
* the petrochemical industry
* dyes
* aromatic compounds
* organic catalysts
* reaction mechanisms
* detergents
* petrochemical pollution
* CFCs
* thalidomide
* adhesives
* pheromones
* natural flavours
* organic materials derived from plants (e.g. peanuts, coconuts, sugarcane)
* sources for drugs -- extraction from organisms, chemical synthesis, biotechnology
Learning experiences (suggestions only)
* perform chemical tests for functional groups
* synthesize an organic compound (e.g. aspirin)
* isolate and/or purify organic compounds (e.g. steam distillation of natural oils, chromatography, recrystallization)
* build 3-D models of organic compounds
* debate the issues related to the disposal of hazardous organic waste
* visit a sugar mill/refinery, oil refinery, food processing plant
* create concept maps for organic processes
* identify the polymers present in simple household objects
* experience the unusual properties of some polymer materials (e.g. 'slime', bouncing putty)

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Topic 5 Chemical Periodicity
Introduction
Early in the 19th century, chemists, observing that some elements had similar properties, sought to place them in groups based on these similarities. German chemist Dobereiner recognized triads like calcium-strontium-barium and chlorine-bromine-iodine. English chemist Newlands arranged elements in order of increasing atomic mass and noticed a similarity of every eighth element. Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, recognized the trend of increasing atomic mass, as had Newlands. He also recognized that similar properties occurred after periods (horizontal rows) of varying length, rather than according to the constant law of octaves proposed by Newlands. His construction of a periodic table that had the first two rows of seven elements each, followed by seventeen in the next two, has provided the basis for modern periodic tables. These are based on the electronic configuration of atoms. All elements in a horizontal row are called a period, and all elements in a vertical line are called a group or family. Such families include the halogens, the alkali metals and the noble gases. Elements in the same family tend to have similar properties. This is because they have similar arrangements of the outer shell electrons. Elements with one, two or three electrons in the outer level tend to be metals, while elements with five, six, seven or eight outer electrons tend to be nonmetals. The periodic table, together with the octet rule, can be used to predict oxidation numbers. Trends in atomic size and ionization energies (the energy required to remove an electron) are observed through periods. The concepts of ionization energy and electron affinity can be useful in understanding how compounds are formed and can be used to predict which elements will react to produce compounds.

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Subject matter
Modern periodic tables are human constructed organizers that reflect observed properties and presumed models of atomic structure and orbital theories. Students should become familiar with the major features of periodicity and the general trends observed through families and periods. Students should be able to locate those elements that are gases, liquids and solids, and those that are metals and nonmetals. While it is necessary that many aspects of periodicity will be best introduced within a specific learning unit, frequent reference will be made to the periodic table in other core topics. Students will refer to the periodic table for information on atomic mass, atomic weight, atomic number and elemental symbols when learning about formulae, molarity, molecular weight and isotopes, for example. Their understanding of underlying atomic structure and the principles of reactivity and the energy of bonds will be reinforced by the information systematically conveyed through the periodic table. The core topic, Chemical Periodicity, reinforces these other core topics, as well as it being reinforced by them. In this way, students should gain an appreciation of the interrelated nature of all aspects of the full course.
Chemical Periodicity could be used as the platform for commencing other core topics, or it could be used as a unifier after other core topics have been introduced. It is possible that a spirally arranged sequence of learning experiences would continue to reinforce it and other core topics, increasing students' conceptual understandings. There are many video programs that would support Chemical Periodicity. Those interested in presenting a history of science might use this core topic as a particular focus, since the elemental symbols and names, as well as the sequence of the discovery of new elements and the study of their properties represent a history of human endeavour and scientific enlightenment.
Such a study could also help students understand the international and multicultural nature of science (both cooperative and competitive!). The importance (and success) of communicating discoveries in scientific reports and journals, and debating theories at meetings of professional societies, symposia and conferences could be discussed. An appreciation of internationally recognized and observed conventions and protocols related to formula and equation writing and report format could also be developed through such studies.
CORE: (Minimum time for A plus B of 10 hours) The time spent on A and B need not be comparable.
Students should:
A. either
compare and contrast the physical and chemical properties of the elements in one group or period of the periodic table
or
describe the physical and chemical processes involved in the discovery of a particular element; the significance of this element to humans; and the scientist(s) who discovered it
AND
B. meet the knowledge objectives listed in column 1 in table 5 together with associated scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills objectives of the school's choosing. (For any of these, this may be achieved through specific separate treatment; by incorporation in the activity in A; by treatment through an elective; or through a theme topic that draws upon several core topics.)
Table 5 lists mandatory knowledge objectives in column 1 and presents suggestions that may be used to develop scientific processes (column 2) and complex reasoning processes (column 3).
Table 5

Column 1 Knowledge objectives (mandatory)	Column 2 Scientific processes (suggestions only)	Column 3 Complex reasoning processes (suggestions only)
Students should be able to: 5.1 describe the general organization of the periodic table in terms of electron arrangement 5.2 identify the s, p, d and f block groups of elements on the periodic table 5.3 recall the characteristics of the main groups of the periodic table 5.4 recall the trends across a period or down a group in the periodic table for properties such as melting or boiling point, reactivity, ionization energy, atomic radius, metallic character, nature of oxides 5.5 explain the relationship between the number of valence electrons for an element, its position in the periodic table and its chemical properties	Students may: * identify trends and anomalies in experimental data for groups and periods in the periodic table * make observations of properties of some elements and interpret this information * use secondary data sources to access relevant information on the periodic table * present data in graphical or tabular form * deliver an oral report on a research study of the periodic table	Students may: * identify the group classification of an unknown element or ion on the basis of its physical and chemical properties * interpret trends in previously unseen properties of compounds of a group or period of the periodic table

Electives (suggestions only)
* Mendeleev and the historical development of the periodic table
* the history and discovery of individual elements
* the detailed chemistry of particular elements or groups
* ionization energy, electronegativity, atomic and ionic radius
* Moseley and the concept of atomic number
* trans-uranium elements
* trace elements in living organisms
* the biological role of particular elements (e.g. phosphorus, iron, molybdenum)
* transition metal compounds in medicine (e.g. gold anti-arthritic drug, platinum anti-tumour drugs
* vapour deposition of elements
* effects of deficiency of particular elements on humans (e.g. iodine)
* silicon chips
* the historical development of chemical symbols
* transmutation of elements -- medieval alchemy and modern reality
* the effects of the availability of elements on human history (e.g. iron, gold)
* extraction of uranium from seawater
* polarity of molecules
* toxicology of some elements (e.g. beryllium, lead, cadmium, arsenic)
* identification of elements using atomic absorption spectroscopy
* galactochemistry - the birth of the elements
Learning experiences (suggestions only)
* collect samples of commonly available elements
* observe simple reactions of various elements
* observe simple reactions of transition metal salts (e.g. with an alkali, ammonia, HCl)
* apply a simple qualitative analysis scheme to identify elements or ions present
* research the historical development of the periodic table
* obtain and use periodic tables with varying formats or with illustrations

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Topic 6 Gases and the Atmosphere
Introduction
Gas is one of the four phases of matter. Current models of the creation of the universe describe chemical and physical processes involving gases. Life on earth is dependent on the mantle of gases that constitute the earth's atmosphere. Many powerful and subtle properties and reactions of these gases are involved in life's ultimate chemistry -- that of photosynthesis and respiration. Weather, and its influence on the nature and distribution of life forms, occurs because of complex physical and chemical processes of atmospheric gases. A host of land clearing, agricultural, industrial and Western lifestyle practices influence the composition of the atmosphere, and therefore have changed, and continue to change, the nature of the atmosphere's chemistry and physics. Understanding the impacts of phenomena such as the greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion and acid rain requires both a broad, as well as intimate, knowledge of a wide range of chemical, physical and biological processes.
Gases have featured in the history of science in general, and of chemistry in particular. Through studying the properties of gases, current concepts of the particle nature of matter, the mole, temperature, heat and kinetic theory, and equilibria among others have been constructed. Significant industrial processes involving gases are responsible for the manufacture of a host of substances. Specific gases are used in medicine, space and underwater exploration, computer chip assembly, agricultural processes of ripening, food processing, manufacturing construction materials, welding and the plastics industry. The chemistry of fuel gases is exploited for the engines of industry and the motor car.

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Subject matter
Students should become familiar with the general physical properties of gases and the relationship between gases and the other three phases of matter. They should be able to locate the gaseous elements on a periodic table as studied in the core topic, Chemical Periodicity, and to relate the properties of these gases to their atomic properties, including atomic mass and electronic configuration as studied in the core topic, Materials - Properties, Bonding and Structure.
CORE: (Minimum time for A plus B of 10 hours) The time spent on A and B need not be comparable.
Students should:
A. either
describe the properties, preparation and use of one gas and its significance to humans
or
present in writing, orally, or in some other way, one current issue in which a gas, or the chemistry of the atmosphere, is prominent
AND
B. meet the knowledge objectives listed in column 1 in table 6 together with associated scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills objectives of the school's choosing. (For any of these, this may be achieved through specific separate treatment; by incorporation in the activity in A; by treatment through an elective; or through a theme topic that draws upon several core topics.)
Table 6 lists mandatory knowledge objectives in column 1 and presents suggestions that may be used to develop scientific processes (column 2) and complex reasoning processes (column 3).
Table 6

Column 1 Knowledge objectives (mandatory)	Column 2 Scientific processes (suggestions only)	Column 3 Complex reasoning processes (suggestions only)
Students should be able to: 6.1 describe the physical properties common to gases -- compressibility, diffusion, pressure, temperature, solubility 6.2 explain the kinetic theory of gases and the relationship between absolute temperature and kinetic energy 6.3 describe the conditions under which real gases approach ideal gas behaviour 6.4 explain the concept of vapour pressure and the factors on which it depends 6.5 list the major gases in the earth's atmosphere and describe how the presence of each affects human welfare	Students may: * process information and devise simple investigations to explore the ideal gas law * analyse quantitatively and qualitatively the concept of partial pressure to make simple judgements involving Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure	Students may: * use the kinetic theory to examine common gas properties critically * solve problems involving vapour pressure

Electives (suggestions only)
* historical development of models of gas behaviour through Boyle's and Charles' Laws
* diffusion of gases
* Brownian motion
* Maxwell distribution of kinetic energy and the effect of temperature
* SCUBA diving
* gas liquefaction
* explosives
* commercial preparation of ammonia
* fractional distillation (e.g. in an oil refinery)
* gas chromatography
* chemistry of upper atmosphere -- ozone layer
* greenhouse effect
* air pollution
* car exhausts and catalytic converters
* airbags in cars
* lighter than air travel
* atmospheres of other planets
* volcanic eruptions
* NO as a biological messenger
* methane in the atmosphere
Learning experiences (suggestions only)
* measure temperature and pressure of a gas
* confirm Boyle's Law experimentally
* generate and collect a gas

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Topic 7 Energy and Rates of Chemical Reactions
Introduction
Photosynthetic plants and bacteria take 'free' environmental energy in the form of light and convert it into the energy of bonds of organic molecules. Chemosynthetic bacteria use the energy released during certain chemical reactions in a similar way. All living things rely on the energy in the bonds of a wide range of organic compounds for the processes of life. Energy in the bonds of fuels, including wood, coal, kerosene and petrol, is released during combustion to provide energy for heating, lighting, electricity generation, and to drive the engines and motors of cars, ships, aeroplanes, and the host of machinery used to produce all the products that contribute to our lifestyle.
Energy holds the particles of every atom together. The energies of electrons relate to their motion, position and reactivity. The energies of atoms and molecules relate to their motion and closeness to each other, and hence such properties as their state of matter and temperature. To understand energy and its relationships in chemical reactions is to start to understand the nature of the universe itself. Einstein's formula E = mc² shows the link between matter and energy. Energy is the weave that holds the material fabric of the universe together.
Chemical reactions involve energy transfer. First-hand laboratory experiences, as well as observation of everyday chemical reactions, will reveal that some reactions proceed more quickly than others. Observation and measurement of time, temperature and concentrations of reactants provide data that enables the construction of models to explain these different rates of reactions. The construction of understandings of the concepts of the kinetic theory, molecular architecture and reaction kinetics is based on the real world experiences of chemical reactions experienced by students. A significant core of first-hand experience of a wide variety of chemical reactions and the factors affecting their rates will enable students to make the connections between the unseen and unseeable world of atoms and molecules and the concepts relating to their size, mass, architecture and reactive properties.

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Subject matter
Familiarity with the kinetic model of matter and collision theory should enable students to relate the states of matter to the energies of atoms and molecules. Concepts of enthalpy and entropy will be introduced. Students should be able to describe concepts related to endothermic and exothermic reactions, activation energy and reaction kinetics. Possible laboratory practical exercises include experiments related to heats of reactions and calorimetric experiments combusting a range of organic food or fuel substances. The properties of everyday substances and their reaction rates could be used to demonstrate the 'real world' applicability of knowledge of this topic. Epoxy resins, glues, adhesives and other binding and filling products, cooking and other food reactions (or their absence, as in preserving technologies), dyeing, bleaching, detergents and other cleaning agents are possible chemicals and reactions that might have relevance for students. Many of these are REDOX in nature and students could study the links between energy transformations of electrochemical reactions.
As in the core topic, Reacting Quantities and Chemical Analysis, students will have a significant number of laboratory experiences that develop early skills of following experimental instructions, recording observations and quantitative data and writing experimental results in an accepted report mode. Once mastered, these skills will provide a platform for the development of the higher cognitive scientific processes and complex reasoning related to rates of chemical reactions. Students will study how concentration, temperature and catalysts affect rates of reaction. Students can then start to appreciate the subtleties of 'elegant' models of atoms and molecules, and of the 'rigours' of the scientific method.
CORE: (Minimum time of 15 hours for A plus B) The time spent on A and B need not be comparable.
Students should:
A. either
describe the importance of chemical energy in industrial societies for combustion in car engines, production of electricity or for any other industrial purpose
or
use an important industrial, technological or biochemical process to demonstrate the relevance of an understanding of chemical kinetics
AND
B. meet the knowledge objectives listed in column 1 in table 7 together with associated scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills objectives of the school's choosing. (For any of these, this may be achieved through specific separate treatment; by incorporation in the activity in A; by treatment through an elective; or through a theme topic that draws upon several core topics.)
Table 7 lists mandatory knowledge objectives in column 1 and presents suggestions that may be used to develop scientific processes (column 2) and complex reasoning processes (column 3).
Table 7

Column 1 Knowledge objectives (mandatory)	Column 2 Scientific processes (suggestions only)	Column 3 Complex reasoning processes (suggestions only)
Students should be able to: 7.1 state the Law of Conservation of Energy 7.2 define the terms exothermic, endothermic, combustion, enthalpy, entropy, reaction rate, reaction coordinate, activated complex, activation energy, catalyst and reaction mechanism 7.3 define delta and identify whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic given deltaH values 7.4 explain how potential energy reaction coordinate diagrams change if a catalyst is present in a reaction 7.5 relate enthalpy changes in a reaction to bond energies 7.6 list the factors that influence the rate of reaction 7.7 recall the basic postulates of collision theory 7.8 use collision theory to explain how the nature of reactants, the concentration or pressure of the reactants, the surface area of the reactants, the temperature of the system and the action of catalysts/inhibitors, influence the rate of reaction 7.9 describe the difference between a stoichiometric equation and a reaction mechanism	Students may: * collect and interpret information on energy sources * observe and interpret temperatures changes during chemical reactions * follow procedures to determine deltaH values experimentally using calorimetry * process experimental rate data graphically and/ or numerically * perform simple rate experiments and interpret observations	Students may: * solve multistep problems involving deltaH * make decisions regarding the energy efficiency and energy supply capacity of some fossil fuels and alternative energy sources * design calorimetric experiments to evaluate fuel efficiency * perform complex rate experiments and interpret observations * design and carry out experimental investigations to follow the course of a reaction and/or determine the influence of variables on reaction rates * justify the choice of conditions for an unseen industrial or technological process not previously encountered by the students

Electives (suggestions only)
* energy changes in biological systems (e.g. photosynthesis and respiration)
* energy transformations in the home (cold packs, lights, cooking), industry, the environment (glow worms, fireflies, luminescent fish) and the human body (food as fuels)
* the heating value of coals and fuels obtained from crude oil
* biofuels
* petrol engines
* catalysts and car performance
* hydrogen as a fuel -- production and industrial manufacture, storage and uses
* energy efficiency in industrial processes (e.g. aluminium refining)
* energy efficient housing
* energetics of recycling, water purification
* energy storage in molecules (translational, rotational, vibrational)
* calculations involving Hess's Law
* phase changes, lattice energies, heats of solvation
* chemiluminescence
* nuclear energy, solar energy
* radioactive decay as an example of a kinetic process
* ethanol from sugar cane
* the Haber cycle
* organic reaction mechanisms
* Ziegler-Natta catalysts in polymer chemistry
* food preservatives
* enzyme action in biochemical processes
* Maxwell-Boltzmann kinetic energy curve and the effect of temperature on reaction rate
* determination of activation energy from temperature/rate studies
* Zeolites -- tailor made catalysts
* oscillating reactions
* chaos and kinetics
* clock reactions
Learning experiences (suggestions only)
* use a simple calorimeter to perform experiments
* debate energy conservation issues (e.g. recycling)
* build models of energy efficient houses
* perform simple experiments illustrating the factors affecting reaction rate
* perform quantitative experiments to determine order of reactions
* visit an industrial plant
* use computer simulation of reaction kinetics

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Topic 8 Chemical Equilibrium
Introduction
Many reactions and processes are reversible. Equilibrium is a dynamic state in which two opposing processes take place at the same time and at the same rate. In 1888, French chemist Henri Louis Le Chatelier published this principle: If a system at equilibrium is subjected to stress, the equilibrium will be displaced in such direction as to relieve the stress. Equilibrium between a solid and a solution is the state attained in which the opposing processes of dissolving and crystallizing of a solute occur at equal rates. Significant numbers of chemical reactions occur when the reacting species are in solution. Life as we know it on Earth would not be possible without water. More substances dissolve in water than any other solvent, thus allowing the maximum number of substances to react with each other. This leads to the diversity of chemical reactions that constitute the totality of the biochemical processes of each individual cell, and ultimately each living organism. Many natural environmental processes are reversible, and the chemistry of soil, water and the atmosphere involves the dynamic equilibria of substances going into and out of solution. Human activities have caused changes to water tables and water catchments and changes to the soil by extraction of substances and deliberate and unintentional additions of soluble and insoluble substances. The chemistry of soils and water catchments has therefore been altered. Solutions to many current environmental problems caused by these changes will be found when these reactions and their dynamics have been better identified and quantified.
Electrolytes are substances that in solution conduct an electric current because they have dissociated into ions. Historically, they have been classified into three classes -- acids, bases and salts. Nearly all fruits contain acids, as do many other foods. Mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid and nitric acid are very important in the chemical production industries. Common bases include household ammonia and sodium hydroxide. Milk of magnesia is a suspension of magnesium hydroxide and is used as an antacid and a laxative. Different acids and bases dissociate differently in water.
Dissociation is a reversible process and Le Chatelier's Principle applies. Specific reaction constants, kA and kB, can be determined.

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Subject matter
Students will encounter solvents, solutes, solutions, dissolving, solubility and insolubility, solubility constant and precipitation. They should be able to describe Le Chatelier's Principle and apply it quantitatively to solubility equilibria and acid-base equilibria. Students should be able to describe the effects of temperature and the presence of other ions on solubility. Students will study acids and bases and should be able to describe the properties of weak and strong acids and bases and the difference between strength and concentration.
Significant laboratory experience will enable students to be familiar with methods of making solutions of different concentrations and the different ways of indicating those concentrations (for example, ppm and molarity). They should be able to select appropriate indicators for the determination of pH of solutions
and apply appropriate titration techniques. (Many schools will be in a position to augment this laboratory experience by entering annual titration competitions.) Through these laboratory activities, students should develop skills in accuracy
and precision in quantitative measurements of mass and volume. Where available, students may gain additional laboratory skills with pH meters and probes. Students should be able to write balanced equations showing solubility and acid/base equilibria and be able to apply the equilibrium law to these reactions. Schools using practical examinations that demonstrate student achievement in laboratory skills might consider titrations to be an appropriate component of such assessment. Many student centred projects are possible and like projects possible in all the other core topics, such studies could be part of the normal teaching/learning/assessment schema and/or be entries in regional,
state and national science competitions.
CORE: (Minimum time of 25 hours for A plus B) The time spent on A and B need not be comparable.
Students should:
A. either
demonstrate how equilibrium processes are important in the industrial manufacture of chemicals (e.g. ammonia, sulfuric acid or nitric acid)
or
discuss simple equilibria in a biological system
AND
B. meet the knowledge objectives listed in column 1 in table 8 together with associated scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills objectives of the school's choosing. (For any of these, this may be achieved through specific separate treatment; by incorporation in the activity in A; by treatment through an elective; or through a theme topic that draws upon several core topics.)
Table 8 lists mandatory knowledge objectives in column 1 and presents suggestions that may be used to develop scientific processes (column 2) and complex reasoning processes (column 3).
Table 8

Column 1 Knowledge objectives (mandatory)	Column 2 Scientific processes (suggestions only)	Column 3 Complex reasoning processes (suggestions only)
Students should be able to: 8.1 describe reversibility of a chemical reaction 8.2 identify the characteristics of an equilibrium state 8.3 compare and contrast the concepts of steady state and dynamic equilibrium 8.4 write the appropriate balanced equations for equilibrium systems including phase changes, gas phase reactions, redox, acid-base, solubility processes and reactions in aqueous solution -- precipitation 8.5 apply the concept of dynamic equilibrium to the changes listed in 8.4 8.6 describe the meaning of the terms saturated, unsaturated, dilute, concentrated, strong electrolyte, weak electrolyte, non electrolyte, strong and weak acids as applied to solutions and give examples 8.7 recall the solubility of a range of common salts 8.8 state the Equilibrium Law and apply it to the equilibria listed in 8.4 8.9 estimate the relative extent of reactions given equilibrium constants 8.10 perform simple equilibrium calculations relating equilibrium constants to equilibrium concentrations or pressures 8.11 state Le Chatelier's Principle and use it to explain/predict the effect of an imposed change on an equilibrium system 8.12 describe the physical properties and simple chemical reactions of acids and bases 8.13 define acids and bases using the Lowry-Bronsted theory 8.14 define pH and Kw 8.15 perform simple calculations relating pH to [H3O+] and [OH-]	Students may: * observe and describe the reversibility of a range of equilibrium processes * predict/observe the effect of factors such as concentration, pressure, temperature and presence of catalysts on the position of equilibrium * perform simple experiments to observe the properties of acids and bases * measure the pH of solutions (acids, bases, salts) * process experimental data to evaluate whether an electrolyte is strong or weak or is a non-electrolyte * predict/observe the formation of insoluble salts in solution * perform and report on an acid-base titration	Students may: * use qualitative analysis schemes to determine the identity of unknown solutions * predict/explain the effects of imposed changes (concentration, pressure, temperature, competing equilibria) on complex or novel equilibrium systems * design and carry out experiments to determine an equilibrium constant * evaluate the usefulness and limitations of the Lowry-Bronsted theory * perform multistep or more difficult calculations

Electives (suggestions only)
* the Haber process
* buffers and their uses
* formation of mineral deposits (e.g. stalactites and stalagmites)
* pH changes in acid-base titrations
* crystal growth
* complex calculation using the Equilibrium Law
* acid-base chemistry in the home
* industrial preparation and uses of sulfuric acid
* industrial preparation and uses of nitric acid
* soap manufacture
* acid rain
* acid-base equilibria of blood and CO₂ /O₂ transport
* chemistry of the swimming pool
* pH of soils and plant growth
* precipitation titrations
* hard and soft water
* equilibria in the upper atmosphere
* complex ion equilibria
* phase changes in solid materials (e.g. Napoleon's soldiers' tin buttons)
Learning experiences (suggestions only)
* perform simple precipitation experiments
* prepare indicators from natural products
* perform simple experiments with acids and bases
* measure pH using indicators or a pH meter
* perform conductivity experiments
* seed a supersaturated solution (e.g. sodium thiosulfate)
* observe factors affecting specific equilibrium systems (e.g. N₂O₄ / NO₂, Cr₂O₇^2- / CrO₄^2-)

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8.0 Assessment
8.1 Underlying principles
8.2 Assessment instruments
8.3 Exit Levels of Achievement

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8.4 Manipulative skills
(See section 4: General objectives.)
This criterion deals with the ability of a student to operate scientific and experimental equipment proficiently and safely. Since this hands-on ability is sufficiently different from the cognitive abilities associated with the other criteria, performance must not be used in trade-off considerations.
Specific manipulative skills must be listed and assessed. Some schools may prefer to list them, as they occur, within particular school units. Other schools might list them as a total collective list because they are either developmental, occur repetitively throughout a course, or may occur for different students at different times.
The following list outlines the mandatory manipulative skills. Schools may add additional manipulative skills, dependent upon the learning experiences they choose.
Manipulative skills and laboratory safety
A. It is mandatory that students demonstrate satisfactory manipulative skills in:
1. Using a graduated cylinder
2. Measuring mass of dry powders
3. Measuring mass of glassware and other laboratory equipment
4. Using Bunsen burners, electrical heaters and water baths (where appropriate) for heating: - solids - nonflammable liquids - flammable liquids
5. Decanting
6. Filtering
7. Transferring solids from one container to another
8. Transferring liquids from one container to another
9. Preparing and assembling glassware and glass tubing
10. Using a pipette
11. Using a burette
12. Collection of a gas
13. Using a thermometer.
B. Students should demonstrate satisfactory knowledge of the safe operation of all laboratory equipment used and the operation of laboratory safety equipment, including:
1. fire extinguisher(s)
2. fire blanket
3. electrical isolation
4. gas isolation
5. eye bath
6. safety shower.
Satisfactory knowledge need not necessarily require students to handle these items of safety equipment.
Additionally, students should demonstrate a satisfactory ability to read and recognize the importance of widely used labelling and warning systems including the colour/ alphanumeric code used to designate the nature of substances stored or transported, and the nationally used labelling icons for properties of substances (e.g. corrosive, toxic, flammable, ionizing).
Schools must include in their overall assessment plan the techniques/instruments used in determining student performance in manipulative skills.
Schools must make an overall judgement on manipulative skills in terms of two standards -- satisfactory or unsatisfactory (or an equivalent).
The work program must:
1. Define 'satisfactory'. (This would include considerations of safety, application, accuracy and precision where appropriate.)
2. Clearly indicate what evidence will be supplied in the folio to support this skill evaluation.
3. State what adjustment will apply to VHA, HA and SA students for whom the manipulative skills performance is 'unsatisfactory'. (It is expected that this would
occur on very rare occasions.)
To address this, a work program might include the following sample statement:
Less than satisfactory skills performance may cause threshold students to have their provisional Level of Achievement lowered to the top of the next level. However, students well above threshold may have their position within a Level of Achievement lowered.
The determination of a 'satisfactory' assessment for a particular manipulative skill will depend on the nature of the skill and considerations of safety, application, accuracy and precision, as appropriate. Consideration of precision and accuracy will feature more prominently for skills that are significantly one of measurement. Consideration of safety will feature more prominently for skills that significantly
involve the handling of substances, heating equipment and other apparatus.
For the group A manipulative skills, a 'satisfactory' or an 'unsatisfactory' evaluation could be made by teacher observation. A record could be made on a checklist form as part of each student's review folio.
A number of observations may be recorded at different times throughout the course of study. Some students may require a number of opportunities before being able to demonstrate 'satisfactory' achievement.
Certain ranges of physical abilities may mean that some students may not be able to perform particular manipulative skills. In such cases, the manipulative skills checklist will show a null record for these skills; that is, there will be no determination of 'satisfactory' or 'unsatisfactory'. For the group B operation of laboratory safety equipment, a 'satisfactory' or an 'unsatisfactory' evaluation of knowledge may be made by teacher observation of students using the apparatus:
* if the actual use of the equipment is practical and feasible;
* by written or oral responses to set questions asked of all students;
* by a dated declaration on the checklist that students attended an appropriate lecture and/or demonstration; for example, the discharge and application of a variety of fire extinguishers.

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8.5 Trade-offs
8.6 Special considerations
8.7 Student review folio
8.8 Summary | FLOW CHART
Table 9: Minimum standards associated with exit criteria

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9.0 Work program requirements
The work program is a formal expression of the school's interpretation of this syllabus. It has three primary functions. First, it provides guidance to the teachers of the subject as to the nature and requirements of the Chemistry program at the school. Second, it provides similar guidance to the school's students, and their parents, in relation to the subject matter to be studied and how achievement of the program's objectives will be assessed. Third, it provides a basis for accreditation with the Board of Senior Secondary School Studies for the purposes of including student results for the subject on the Senior Certificate.
This section provides a summary of elements that must be addressed before accreditation can occur as well as a framework for organizing work program units and
objectives.
A work program in Chemistry must include (at least) the following elements:

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Rationale
The rationale must detail the justification for incorporating this course of study in the curriculum of the target student population. This must be derived principally from the syllabus statement. It should also detail features of the school that affect the course.

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10.0 Educational Equity
An educational equity statement must detail how the school intends to address the ministerial statement on educational equity (See section 10.0).

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Global aims and general objectives
Global aims and objectives must include those of the syllabus (a photocopy will suffice) and take account of the particular circumstances of the school and its student population, if appropriate. The syllabus global aims and objectives are mandatory. Any special aims and objectives identified by a school may be acceptable provided they can be incorporated within these syllabus objectives.

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Course outline and coverage
The course outline must list the school work units that have been devised or selected by the school to structure and sequence students' learning experiences. The syllabus does not impose any expectation of sequence of topics, but a work program should clearly indicate the teaching sequence of school units chosen. This does not necessarily entail semesterization of work units and assessment.
The syllabus identifies mandatory core subject matter in terms of core topics. There is also provision for the inclusion of elective topics that may form part of a work program. The work program may be based on the core topics alone and their in-depth treatments, or the core topics plus elective topics. Thus a school unit in the work program could be:
1. Core subject matter only
2. Core subject matter plus one or more elective topics
3. Elective topics only
The work program must indicate how the minimum time requirements in each of the core topics over the entire set of school units are met. This can be formatted in a number of different ways.
(a) By school units:
If the work program is based upon a number of school units the format of figure A1 may be of assistance in indicating how these requirements are met. A work program author adopting such a format must include a table such as the one outlined in figure A1 (or its equivalent) in the work program.
(b) By syllabus core topics:
An alternative work program format may consist of individual treatment of the syllabus core topics. In this case, a table in the format shown in figure A2, or its equivalent, must be included in the work program. It must be noted that, when electives are included in the program, they constitute significant aspects of the course of study and, as such, must be assessed. Furthermore, at least 130 hours must be allocated to the development of the core topics.
Figure A1

School units	Topic 1	Topic 2	Topic 3	Topic 4	Topic 5	Topic 6	Topic 7	Topic 8	Topic 9	Elective topics	Total hours
[1, 2, 3 etc.]	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Semester 1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	55 (minimum)
[Total units]	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	220 (minimum)

Figure A 2

Syllabus topics	Semester 1	Semester 2	Semester 3	Semester 4	Total hours
[1, 2, 3 etc.]	-	-	-	-	-
Total (hours)	55 (minimum)	55 (minimum)	55 (minimum)	55 (minimum)	220 (minimum)

9.01 Specific objectives
Specific objectives must be written for each school work unit. The objectives should be inclusive and succinct rather than exhaustively specific. The match between these and the general objectives must be indicated by means of a summary table, such as in figure B1. Specific objectives need to be written for the knowledge of subject matter, scientific processes, complex reasoning processes and manipulative skills performance dimensions.
It is necessary for the school to detail in the work program the extent to which the general objectives will be developed through the work program's specific objectives. Specific objectives should be organized to allow the development of the general objectives over the entire course of study. Each general objective category should also be developed in a balanced way; that is, no one category developed at the expense of another. A completed table similar to figure B1, or the equivalent, must be included in the work program.

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Explanation of Figure B1 (below): General objectives coverage grid
* The specific objective codes refer to particular specific objectives that are detailed in each work program unit.
* In the example given, only some entries have been made for some work program units to illustrate the way in which such a table could be compiled.
* Figure B1 is incomplete and its final composition would depend on the way in which an individual school chooses to develop the work program unit.
* A blank table, figure B2, is provided. A completed expansion of the table must be
included in the work program.
Note: For the purpose of the example shown overleaf, the codes below would refer to a complete list of specific objectives that would be listed elsewhere in the work program.
K = knowledge of subject matter objectives
SP = scientific processes objectives
CR = complex reasoning processes objectives
MS = manipulative skills objectives
The numbers refer to the syllabus core topic and the number of the objective in the list. Objectives without an * are directly from the syllabus. Objectives with an * are school written objectives.
For example, K1.5 is the fifth objective in the list of knowledge objectives in syllabus core topic 1, while K2.11* is a school written objective, eleventh in the extended list for syllabus core topic 2, and so on.
Figure B1: Syllabus general objectives coverage grid
(Note: An interpretation of general objective coverage for some core topics has been included by way of example. The legend is on the previous page.)
Figure B1: General objectives coverage grid

Syllabus general objectives	Syllabus general objectives	Work program unit 1	Work program unit 2	Work program unit 3	Work program unit 4	Work program unit 5	Work program unit 6	Work program unit 7	Work program unit 8	Work program unit 9	Work program unit 10
Knowledge of subject matter	-	* K1.1-1.3 *K13-1.15* *K2.7-2.10*	K2.1-2.2 * K5.1 * K2.11*	*K1.5-1.7 K2.1, 2.3 * K5.2	K2.3 K2.5	-	-	-	K8.11-8.15 K8.16-8.17*	-	-
Scientific processes	Collect and organize data Process information Make simple judgements	* SP1.1 * SP1.5 * SP1.6* * SP1.4	-	-	-	-	-	-	* SP8.1, 8.2, 8.3 * SP8.7 * SP8.5, 8.7 *SP8.7	-	-
Scientific processes	Communicate information	* SP1.5	-	-	-	-	-	-	* SP8.7	-	-
Scientific processes	Devise/design simple investigations	* SP1.2-1.3	-	-	-	-	-	-	* SP8.7	-	-
Complex reasoning processes	Solve challenging problems Make logical decisions	* CR1.2	-	-	* CR2.7	-	-	-	* CR8.1 * CR8.9* * CR8.1 * CR8.6*	-	-
Complex reasoning processes	Use creative and/or critical thinking	* CR1.3	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
Manipulative skills		*MSA1-4 * MSB	*MSA1-4, 12, 13 * MSB	*MSA1-8 * MSB	Non-practical unit	-	-	-	* MSA1, 12 MSB	-	-

Figure B2: Syllabus general objective coverage grid - blank [Same as Figure B1]
Note: This blank grid (or its expanded equivalent) must be used by schools to check the match between syllabus general objectives and work program specific objectives.

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9.02 Time emphases
The work program must specify the teaching/learning time emphases within the performance dimension ranges:
Knowledge of subject matter 40-45%
Scientific processes 25-30%
Complex reasoning processes 20-25%
Manipulative skills 5-10%

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9.03 Learning experiences
Learning experiences that will be offered to learners to promote the attainment of the general objectives must be described. Schools should offer a range of experiences as listed in section 5 and exemplified within the core topics. A significant amount of the course should be devoted to practical experiences in the laboratory.

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9.04 Assessment Review/ Overview
9.05 Assessment plan
The assessment plan should fulfil the following:
(a) Since different courses will be designed on different models - for example unitised, spiral (revisiting past material), thematic - Part A and Part B core topic
requirements will consequently be assessed in a manner compatible with the learning model. Whatever learning model is used, the assessment plan must adhere
to the assessment principles outlined in section 8.1 .
(b) It must incorporate an assessment overview (see example on page 61) indicating the approximate timing of each assessment instrument and the work program units that it addresses. The overview should also indicate the relative importance of each summative instrument and the exit criterion or criteria to which it contributes. (c) It must contain a statement that identifies the nature of the course offered (e.g. unitised or developmental), thus validating the emphasis indicated in the assessment overview. This should match the course outline, which will show where specific objectives are revisited and reassessed.
(d) It must describe the types of instruments employed (see section 8.2), the marking criteria to be used for assessing student performance on each, and how they will be used in the total summative assessment plan. Sample marking criteria forms could be included in an appendix.
(e) It must indicate the methods of assessing manipulative skills and criteria for awarding of 'marks' or 'standards'. This will include definitions of 'satisfactory'
and 'unsatisfactory' if these terms are to be used. Sample marking criteria forms could be included in an appendix. Evidence of the use of these marking forms and
checklists for manipulative skills must be provided in students' review folios for monitoring and certification.
(f) It must contain a statement that specifies how student ownership of summative assessment will be ensured - particularly for non-supervised assessment including
assignments and practical reports. This may include a mechanism of 'logging' students' drafts and/or including preliminary drafts with the final version and/or
having student/parent/teacher signatures declaring the work to be that of the student presenting it.
(g) It must specifically meet the following:
(i) Summative assessment of knowledge of the subject matter will reflect the time allocated to summative objectives present in each school unit.
(ii) To accommodate students who exit early from developmental courses of study, assessment in each semester should address each of the four performance
dimensions, at least formatively. The emphasis placed on these dimensions and their contribution to exit Levels of Achievement may vary throughout different
semesters depending on the type of course offered. If the course is developmental, the work program should clearly identify those elements of the course that are revisited and how the fullest and latest information supersedes the earlier information. Schools must develop and assess the general objective categories via the work program specific objectives. The assessment emphasis within each criterion will reflect the school's stated teaching/learning emphasis.
(iii) By October review, the assessment package will contain a minimum of four summative assessment instruments (see section 8.7). Collectively, these assessment instruments must address the full range of general objectives in all performance dimensions (as indicated in section 4) and generate sufficient data to enable valid judgements of students' achievements. The folios for review may also contain formative assessment information.
(iv) The contribution of mark- or non-mark-based information to each performance dimension at exit should reflect the relative importance of course components
as outlined in (b) above.
(v) Achievement information within and between dimensions needs to have an appropriate sense of equivalence when aggregating and/or trading-off respectively.
(h) For schools using mark based standards:
The averaging of percentages in any performance dimension based on non equivalent raw scores may disguise students' actual achievements. A similar raw score
mark base is needed to validate the conversion of marks into percentages and the use of percentages for trading excess performance in one dimension for a
slight deficiency in another. Arithmetic rescaling of raw score marks to conform to some notional semester 'weighting' should be avoided. It may disguise students'
actual achievements and invalidate trade-offs. Trading-off considerations should be on the basis of an actual mark base that reflects the stated importance of each
performance dimension.
(i) For schools using non-mark-based standards:
Schools using non-mark-based standards will need to define unambiguously the criteria by which the standards are being judged. The assessment items used for
judging non-mark-based standards and the criteria to reach different standards need to be able to be validated. A sense of equivalence within, and between, the
performance dimensions needs to be demonstrated. Processes of aggregation within dimensions and combining standards across performance dimensions need to
be clearly explained and able to be validated. Trading-off cannot be validated unless there is demonstrable equivalence of the deficiency and the comparable
excess in the different performance dimensions. An overall sense of equivalence may be affected by the number of questions, degree of difficulty, equivalent
number and nature of verbal descriptors of non-mark-based standards.

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9.06 Exit Levels of Achievement
(a) The work program must contain a copy of the syllabus standard matrix (table 9).
(b) The work program must also specify the standards required on each exit criterion
for awarding Levels of Achievement.
(c) The appropriateness of the application of schools' standards will be affected by
factors such as:
- the nature of the assessment item
- the nature of the student response
- marking schemes and accuracy of the marking.
(d) Trade-off statements should be included (see section 8.5).

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9.1 Summary
The following table presents a summary of syllabus requirements:
Rationale
* syllabus statement
* local features
Educational equity
* school policy re ministerial equity statement
Global aims and general objectives
* syllabus list
* additional school list
Course outline and coverage (figures A1 and A2)
* work program units
* structure and sequence of course Part A and Part B details
* time allocations
* articulation of core and electives and how syllabus requirements are met by the
complete course of study
Learning experiences
* link to objectives and the course scope and sequence
* text and resources
* practical components (significant time allocation)
* language education
Specific objectives
* inclusive and succinct
* summary table showing match between specific objectives and general
objectives (figures B1 and B2)
Time emphases
* knowledge of subject matter
* scientific processes
* complex reasoning processes
* manipulative skills and laboratory safety
Assessment plan
* nature of course (spiral/unitised/mastery . . .)
* assessment overview table
* significant aspects
* continuous
* selective updating
* balance
- topics/units (balance matches teaching/learning emphasis)
- performance dimensions
- variety of assessment instruments
* describe assessment instruments used for:
- knowledge
- scientific processes
- complex reasoning processes
- manipulative skills
* enabling criteria for
- knowledge
- scientific processes
- complex reasoning processes
- manipulative skills
* marking checklists for non-test assessment
- manipulative skills
- practical reports
- practical examinations
- assignments
- special consideration provisions
Exit Levels of Achievement
* articulation of mark based standards/non-mark-based standards
* discrimination across the range of student performance
* student ownership
* student profile form matches assessment plan
* syllabus exit Levels of Achievement criteria
* school's standards for exit Levels of Achievement
* trade-off provisions
* student review folio and October certification 'package' requirements

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11a.0 Resources
The following is a suggested list of possible resources for schools.
Beard, J. and Hodgson, P. 1990, Project Chemistry, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Bloomfield, M.M. 1992, Chemistry and the Living Organism, Wiley, New York.
Brescia, F. 1974, Chemistry: A Modern Introduction, Saunders, Philadelphia.
Brown, K. 1986, Moles: A Survival Guide for GCSE Chemistry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Bucat, R. B. (ed.) 1984, Elements of Chemistry: Earth, Air, Fire and Water: Volumes 1 and 2, Australian Academy of Science, Canberra.
Burke, S. 1992, Chemistry Works, Science Press, NSW.
Carswell, D. J. 1988, Fundamentals of Senior Chemistry, Heinemann Educational, Richmond, Victoria.
Chang, R. 1986, General Chemistry, Random House, New York.
CHEMEDA, RACI Publication, University of Queensland.
Commons, C. 1991, Chemistry Two: Chemistry and the Marketplace, Energy and Matter, Heinemann Educational, Melbourne.
A Concise Dictionary of Chemistry 1990, new edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Cotton, F. A. 1988, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, Wiley, New York.
Cram, L. E. and Varreb, D.A. (ed.) 1993, Carbon -- Element of Energy and Life, The Science Foundation for Physics, Sydney.
Cross, R. 1985, Topics in Senior Chemistry, Heinemann Educational, Richmond, Victoria.
Crowther, B. 1989, Experiments and Investigations in Chemistry, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Eastwood, F. W. 1972, Organic Chemistry: A First University Course in Twelve Programs: Programs 1 to 6, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Elvins, C. 1990, Chemistry One: Materials, Chemistry in Everyday Life, Heinemann Educational, Melbourne.
Elvins, C. 1990, Chemistry One: Teacher's Resource Book, Heinemann Educational, Melbourne.
Emersley, J. 1991, The Elements, 3rd edn, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Failes, R. and Hughes, D. 1993, Chemistry -- The Element of Life, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Freemantle, M. 1987, Chemistry in Action, Macmillan Education, Basingstoke.
Garnett, P .J. 1986, Solutions to Foundations of Chemistry, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne.
Greenwood, N. N. and Earnshaw, A. 1984, Chemistry of the Elements, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Hadden, R. A. and Johnstone, A.H. 1991, Chemistry -- Practical Problem Solving for Standard Grade Chemistry, RACI, South Australia.
Hart, R. 1989, Chemistry Now, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Hill, G. 1989, Chemistry in Context, Nelson, Walton-on-Thames, Chemistry in Context Laboratory Manual and Study Guide, Nelson, Walton-on-Thames.
Chemistry: The Salters' Approach, Heinemann Educational, Oxford.
ICI Pamphlet Set, ICI Australia
Irvine I. 1989, Chemistry in an Australian Context Sourcebook, RACI, Kensington Park, South Australia.
James, M. et al. 1991, Chemical Connections Book 1, Jacaranda Press, Milton, Qld.
Jones, B. 1989, The Mole Concepts: A Guide for Chemistry Students, Edward Arnold, Caulfield East.
Kemp, D.S. 1980, Organic Chemistry, Worth, New York.
Laidler, G. 1985, Environmental Chemistry: An Australian Perspective, Longman, Melbourne.
Liptrot, G. F. 1983, Modern Inorganic Chemistry, Collins Educational, London.
Lister, T. 1991, Understanding Chemistry for Advanced Level, Jacaranda Press, Milton, Qld.
McDuell, B. 1989, Examining GCSE Chemistry, Hutchinson, London.
McQuarrie, D .A. 1985, Descriptive Chemistry, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco.
Morrison, R .T. 1992, Organic Chemistry, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Mullally, S. 1991, Chemistry for Tomorrow's World, Gill and Macmillan, Dublin.
Norman, R .O .C. 1983, Modern Organic Chemistry, Unwin Hyman, London.
Oberkrieser, J. 1982, Concepts in Modern Chemistry, Globe Books, New York.
Pimental, G .C. and Coonrod, J.A. 1987, Opportunities in Chemistry -- Today and Tomorrow, National Academy Press, Washington.
Ramsden, E. N. 1990, A-level Chemistry, Jacaranda Press, Milton, Qld.
Chemical Equilibrium, Pascal Press, Glebe, NSW.
Chemical Energy, Pascal Press, Glebe, NSW.
Carbon Chemistry, Pascal Press, Glebe, NSW.
Selinger, B. 1986, Chemistry in the Marketplace, Harcourt Brace Jovanovic, Sydney.
Slater, B. 1987, The Chemistry Dimension: A Coursebook for GCSE, Macmillan Education, Basingstoke.
Smith, A. and Dwyer, C. 1992, Key Chemistry Book 1 and 2, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
Smith, A. 1986, Chemistry about You, Nelson, Melbourne.
Smith, R. 1987, Conquering Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, Sydney.
Snape, D. 1989, Meet the First 30 Elements, Science Teachers' Association, Parkville, Victoria.
Stark, J .G. 1982, Chemistry Data Book, John Murray, London.
Stewart, V .M. 1984, Chemistry: Teachers Laboratory Resource Book, Biology Associates, East Malvern.
Waddington, N. 1989, Modern Organic Chemistry, Unwin Hyman, London.
Whitten, K .W. 1988, General Chemistry with Qualitative Analysis, Saunders, Philadelphia.
Wiecek, C. 1989, Chemistry for Senior Students, Brooks Waterloo, Milton, Qld.
Wilbraham, A.C. 1990, Chemistry, Addison-Wesley, Menlo Park, California.
Wilkinson, J .W. World of Chemistry: Book 1, Macmillan Australia, South Melbourne, 1989.
Wilkinson, J. W. 1989, World of Chemistry: Book 1: Practical Manual, Macmillan Australia, South Melbourne.
Wilkinson, J .W. 1989, World of Chemistry: Book 2, Macmillan Australia, South Melbourne.
Wiseman, P. 1986, Petrochemicals, Ellis Horwood Ltd, Chichester, England.
Zubay, G. 1989, Biochemistry, Macmillan, New York.
Zumdhal, S .S. 1986, Chemistry, Heath, Lexington, Massachusetts.
The Wessex Project Module: 1. Making Polymers for a Purpose, 2. Drugs, Medicine and People, 3. Catalysts and Catalysis, 4. Separation and Purification, available from STAQ, Brisbane.
Chemistry software: USA, contact: Falcon Software Inc. Box 200 Wentworth, N.H. 03282.
Chemistry videos: World of Chemistry series, Concepts in Science series, Chem Study series
11.0 Glossary

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Table 9: Minimum standards associated with exit criteria

-	Very High Achievement	High Achievement	Sound Achievement	Limited Achievement	Very Limited Achievement
Knowledge of subject matter	A very high ability to recall and apply knowledge in simple situations.	A high ability to recall and apply knowledge in simple situations.	A satisfactory ability to recall and apply knowledge in simple situations.	Little ability to recall and apply knowledge in simple situations.	Very little ability to recall and apply knowledge in simple situations.
Scientific processes	A very high ability to succeed in simple scientific process tasks -- collecting and organizing data, processing information, making simple judgements, communicating information in various contexts, devising and designing simple / single step investigations.	A high ability to succeed in simple scientific process tasks -- collecting and organizing data, processing information, making simple judgements, communicating information in various contexts, devising and designing simple / single step investigations.	A satisfactory ability to succeed in simple scientific process tasks -- collecting and organising data, processing information, making simple judgments, communicating information in various contexts, devising and designing simple/singlestep investigations.	Little ability to succeed in simple scientific process tasks.	Very little ability to succeed in simple scientific process tasks.
Complex reasoning processes	A high ability to use complex reasoning in challenging situations involving the student's understanding of subject matter, and a high ability to use scientific processes at an advanced level.	Competence in using complex reasoning in challenging situations involving the student's understanding of subject matter, and competence in using scientific processes at an advanced level.	Some success in using complex reasoning in challenging situations involving the student's understanding of subject matter, and some success in using scientific processes at an advanced level.	Does not meet the standard for sound achievement.	Does not meet the standard for limited achievement.
Manipulative skills	Satisfactory level of proficiency in manipulative skills	Satisfactory level of proficiency in manipulative skills	Satisfactory level of proficiency in manipulative skills	Some proficiency in manipulative skills	Some proficiency in manipulative skills

Notes: 1. Allowable trade-offs for slight deficiencies in the minimum standards for knowledge of subject matter or scientific processes for each exit Level of
Achievement are outlined in section 8.5.
2. Adjustments to exit Levels of Achievement for 'unsatisfactory' manipulative skills are outlined in section 8.4.
3. The criteria and standards are to be applied to the subject matter of this syllabus, which identifies and contextualises the senior Board subject of Chemistry for
Queensland schools.

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