School Science Lessons
Biology experiments
2009-09-08
Biology names
Table of contents
9.7.0 Microbiology
Table of contents
3.44 Bacteria
9.206 Fungi
9.208 Lichens
9.213 Viruses
4.0.0 Biotechnology
9.1.2.0 Stains, transfer, smears, plates, serial dilution
9.1.2.11 Media and solutions
9.206 Fungi
9.207 Fungi classification
9.207a Phycomycetes, the algae-like fungi
9.207b Heterokontophyta division of the algae
9.206.2 Fungi, important genera
9.206.2.1 Species and possible experiments for schools
9.206.3 Yeast, Phylum Ascomycota
6.0 Culture media for routine cultivation and identification of fungi
9.204 Slide culture preparation to identify fungi
6.5 Fungi (Primary)
6.7 Mouldy bread and rotten fruit (Primary)
9.203 Bathroom and kitchen mould
3.28 Ginger beer "plant"
3.29 Cork taint of wine, "corky" wine (2,4,6-TCA)
9.207 Fungi classification
See 16.3.1.7: Chitin
Fungi have no chlorophyll and the main body, hypha, has walls containing chitin. Fungi may be unicellular or filamentous so are generally classified as yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. Asexual spores, conidia, are cut off from the ends of conidiophore hyphae. A fungus infection of humans is called a mycosis. It is particularly dangerous in immunodeficient patients with AIDS. The main divisions of the fungi are the Basidiomycota, Ascomycota, Glomeromycota, Zygomycota and Deuteromycota, now called the "mitosporic fungi", also called "fungi imperfecti" because no sexual reproduction has been observed.
2.0.3 Plant cells and tissues, eukaryotic cells
3.43.01 Phylum Ascomycota, ascomycetes, ascus-producing fungi, sac fungi, e.g. Penicillium
3.43.02 Phylum Basidiomycota, basidiomycetes, basidium-producing fungi, club fungi,e.g. Agaricus
3.43.02a Rusts, Uredinales
3.43.02b Smuts
3.43.03 Phylum Zygomycota, zygomycetes, phaecomycota, phycomycetes, e.g. Rhizopus
3.43.03a Class Microsporidia
9.207a Phycomycetes, the algae-like fungi
In former classification systems, most of the following groups were classified together as the Phycomycetes, the algae-like fungi.
3.43.04 Deuteromycota (now called the "mitosporic fungi") deuteromycetes, imperfect fungi, fungi imperfecti, anamorphic fungi (They are Ascomycota and Basidiomycota in which sexual reproduction is unknown, so they are called "imperfect".)
9.207b Heterokontophyta division of the algae
The following groups are nowadays usually classified under the heterokontophyta division of the algae.
3.43.05 Class Mycetozoa (Phylum Myxomycota) Myxomycetes (acellular or plasmodial or coenocytic slime moulds) the unit is a lasmodium, slime fungus, fungus-like slime moulds, the Class contains many micro-organisms but most are not fungi, also giant kelps, Stemonitis, Physarum polycephalum
3.43.06 Class Oomycetes (Phylum Oomycota) water moulds, rusts, Kingdom Chromista, water mould, egg fungi, not a fungus but similar to brown algae. The zoospores have two cilia. (They are nowadays usually classified under the Heterokontophyta division of the Algae, or put in the Kingdom Chromista.)
Aphanomyces raphani black root of radish
Peronospora cubensis downy mildew of cucurbits, e.g. cucumber
Peronospora destructor downy mildew of onion
Peronospora parasitica downy mildew of crucifers, e.g. cauliflower, cabbage
3.43.07 Class Hyphochytridiomycetes (Phylum Hypochytridiomycota) zoospores with just one anterior flagellum (They are nowadays usually classified under the Heterokontophyta division of the Algae, or put in the Kingdom Chromista.)
3.43.08 Class Chytridiomycetes (Phylum Chytridiomycota) chytrids, Algae: Heterokontophyta zoosporic fungi, aquatic fungi
3.43.09 Phylum Glomeromycota, Glomerales, mycorrhizal associations, arbuscular (lives inside plant cells) mutualistic
3.43.10 Phylum Cercozoa, amoeboids and flagellates, "slime mould"
Plasmodiophora brassicae club root fungus of crucifers, e.g. swede
9.206.2 Fungi, important genera
Agaricus
Aspergillus
Blastomyces
Botrytis
Candida
Claviceps purpurea
Colletotrichum
Cryptococcus
Elsinoe
Eurotium
Fusarium
Microsporum
Mucor
Mycosphaerella
Penicillium
Peronospora
Phytophthora
Puccinia
Pythium
Rhizopus
Saccharomyces
Trichophyton
9.206.2.1 Species and possible experiments for schools
Armillaria mellea, honey fungus, causes decay of timber
Candida utilis, producing biomass
Chactomium globosum, grows on paper
Chactomium globosum, digests cellulose
Coprinus lagopus, grows on horse dung
Helminthosporium avenae, oats pathogen
K1uyveromyces lactis, ferments lactose, produces chymosin, rennet
Leptosphaeria maculans, Brassica pathogen
Myrothecium verucaria, digests cellulose
Phaffia rhodozyma, red yeast, used to colour food, e.g. farm salmon
Phycomyces blakesleanus, has phototropic sporangiophores, heterogenesis
Physalospora obtusa, causes apple disease, may produce pectinase
Phytophthora infestans, causes potato blight, has motile zoospores
Plasmodiophora brassicae, causes Brassica club root disease
Pleurotus ostreatus, edible oyster cap mushroom
Rhodutorula rubra, coloured yeast colony
Rhytisma acerinum, lesions on sycamore leaves indicates air pollution
Saprolegnia litoralis, parasite of pond animals
Schizosaccharomyces, large cells that divide by binary fission
Selerotinia fructigena (Monilinia fructigena) causes apple brown rot
Sordaria fimicola, used to study meiosis in fungi
Sordaria brevicollis, used to study meiosis in fungi
Sporobolomyces, grows on leaf surfaces, spores forcibly ejected
Trichoderma reesei, used for production of cellulase
Trichoderma viride, decomposing cellulose
9.206.3 Yeast, Phylum Ascomycota
(Bakers' yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, (beer yeast that tolerate high ethanol concentration S. ellipsoideus) (wine yeast, S. ludwigii, S. minor) (bread yeast, S. octosporus) (grape yeast S. pastorianus), (grows on starch and produces glucoamylase S. diastaticus)
3.26.1 A yeast population
3.27 Red yeast rice, Monascus purpureus
3.28 Ginger beer "plant"
3.35.4 Yeast cells
3.38 Carbon dioxide and fermentation for brewing
9.205 Yeast population, bakers' yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Phylum Ascomycota
9.206.1 Sampling yeast populations
9.207.1 Find wild yeasts in flowers
9.212 Ginger beer "plant"
4.1.2 Enrichment of wild yeast strains
4.3.22 Tests for zymase and catalase in yeast
6.6.14 Heat of respiration, yeast, bakers' yeas
6.6.18 Alcoholic fermentation, yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
11.3.3 Triple scale wine hydrometer
12.4.17 Tests for zymase and catalase in yeast
17.4.2 Catalysts, fermentation with yeast
19.2.11 Yeast for fermentation and brewing
Appendix 2A. Fermentation
3.43.01 Phylum Ascomycota, ascomycetes, ascus-producing fungi, sac fungi, truffle
Aleuria, orange peel cup fungus
Alternaria alternata early blight of potatoes, ink disease of kangaroo paws (Australian plant) respiratory diseases in AIDS patients
Alternaria citri brown spot of mandarin
Alternaria dauci leaf blight of carrot
Alternaria infectoria disease of wheat, hay fever and asthma in humans
Alternaria panax leaf blight of umbrella tree (Schefflera arboricola)
Alternaria passiflorae brown spot of passionfruit
Amanita, agaric mushroom, fly agaric, poisonous toadstool, muscimol, muscimole, muscarine
Armillariella mellea, honey-fungus
Aspergillus
See diagram: 9.203: Conidial head
Aspergillus flavus produces an aflotoxin, common soil saprophyte, a pathogen of humans and animals
Aspergillus niger, NOT suitable for use in schools, black mould on onion and food, produces citric acid, common infection outside the ear drum, common laboratory contaminant
Aspergillus oryzae, NOT suitable for use in schools, produces amylase, used to make Japanese rice wine, sake
Aspergillus nidulans, NOT suitable for use in schools
Botrytis spp. neck rot of onion
Botrytis cinerea disease of strawberry, grey mould of pear, lettuce, grape, pelargonium, rose, rotting fruits, used to produce dessert wines, “noble rot”
Botrytis elliptica grey mould of lilies
Botrytis fabae causes bean plant disease
Botrytis gladiolorum botrytis leaf and flower spot of gladiolus
Botrytis tulipae brown spots on leaves and flowers of tulips
Candida (formerly Torulopsis)
Candida albicans candidiasis (thrush) yeast infection of oral mucosa, oesophagus
Candida genus has yeast-like cells, blastoconidia, that reproduce by budding. All members of the genus occur naturally on humans. Candida albicans, forms cream coloured, smooth surface waxy colonies on an agar plate. It is a commensal of the gastrointestinal tract. However it may cause candidiasis (candidosis) a common yeast infection, especially of the vagina, where it is called thrush. Candida tropicalis is part of the normal mucocutaneous flora but may cause causes septicaemia and candidiasis. It has been isolated from polluted water, soil, and air contaminated by human xcreta.
Candida albicans commensal on mucous membranes and gastrointestinal tract, pathogenic, causes thrush (candidosis) usually in the human body, red lesions in skin infections, nail infections
Candida glabrata common yeast species on human body surface, pathogenic
Candida utilis
Ceratocystis
Cercospora beticola cercospora leaf spot disease of silver beet
Cercospora violae leaf spot of violet
Claviceps purpurea (Family Clavicipitaceae) ergine, d-lysergic diethylamide, ergot fungus, ergometrine causes abortions, ergotamine used for migraine headaches, natural LSD, plant pathogen of rye seed heads [d-lysergic acid amide, d-lysergic acid diethylamide, LSD]
See: LSD
Colletotrichum
Colletotrichum acutatum, black spot of strawberry
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, harmless spots on macadamia nut, rusty blight on mango leaves, anthracnose disease of tomato fruit
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, anthracnose disease of beans
Colletotrichum orbiculare, anthracnose disease of cucurbits, e.g. cucumber, water melon
Colletotrichum trichellum, leaf spot of ivy
Cordyceps sinensis, caterpillar fungus
Didymella bryoniae, gummy stem blight of cucurbits, e.g. watermelon
Diplocarpon mespili, fleck disease of pears and quinces
Diplocarpon rosae, black spot disease of roses
Dipodascus
Drechslera turcica, leaf blight of sweet corn
Elsinoe
Elsinoe ampelina, black spot of grape
Elsinoe rosarum (Splaceloma rosarum) anthracnose disease of roses, raspberry
Elsinoe tristaniae, anthracnose disease of raspberry, leaf spot of brush box
Elsinoe venata, cane spot of raspberry
Endothia
Epidermophyton, causes tinea
Erysiphe, powdery mildew
Eurotium
Examine a mycelium of Eurotium under high power. Note the branched, septate hyphae. Look for conidiophores producing chains of conidia. Observe perithecia attached to the mycelium by thicker hyphae of a darker colour. Gently press the coverslip to burst the wall of sterile hyphae so that the small asci will be extruded. Examine one ascus and look for the eight ascospores.
Fusarium
Fusarium, Panama disease of bananas, Fusarium wilt, basal rot of daffodil
Most Fusarium species are soil fungi. Some are plant pathogens causing stem rot, root rot and fruit rot.
Fusarium graminearum, infects barley, causes red rust on wheat
Fusarium oxysporum, common plant pathogen causes Panama disease of bananas, fusarium wilt of carnation, cucurbits, tomato, fusarium bulb rot of lily, fusarium yellows of gladiolus, fusarium patch of cool climate grass, and dangerous infections in human burns victims.
Fusarium solani, digests cellulose
The banana root nematode, (burrowing nematode, worm or eel worm), Radopholus similis, lives in most banana growing regions. The tiny worms make red brown tunnels in the banana roots and corm. Fusarium oxysporum, infects the tunnels causing root rot or blackhead disease. The roots rot and weaken the plant that may topple over in strong wind after the heavy fruit bunches have formed.
Fusicladium carpophilum, causes freckle disease on stone fruit, e.g. apricot, peach
Geastrum, earth-stars
Glomerella cingulata, causes anthracnose disease of avocado, bitter rot of apple, camellia die back
Histoplasma capsulatum, causes Darling's disease
Leptosphaeria maculans, causes black leg of crucifers, e.g. cabbage
Marssonina rosae (Diplocarpon rosae) causes black spot disease of rose
Microsporum
M. audouinii and M. ferrugineum, cause non-inflammatory infections of the scalp (tinea capitis) especially in children.
M. canis, causes ringworm, especially in children. The infection comes from cats and dogs.
M. gallinae, causes "white comb" lesions in chickens.
M. nanum, causes chronic non-inflammatory lesions in pigs. Infected pigs may infect humans.
Microsphaera
Mycosphaerella
Mycosphaerella, causes leaf and pod spot of pea, leaf spot of eucalyptus
Mycosphaerella fijiensis, causes black Sigatoka disease of bananas
Mycosphaerella fragariae, causes leaf spot of strawberry
Mycosphaerella musae, causes cordana leaf spot, leaf speckle, tropical speckle of banana
Mycosphaerella musicola, causes leaf spot of banana
Monilinia
Morchella
Nematospora (Eremothecium)
Neurospora crassa, red bread mould
Penicillium
Penicillin antibiotic, Phylum Ascomycota
See diagram 9.202: Penicillium | See diagram 9.202.1: Penicillium with branching conidiophores | Penicillium, penicillin antibiotic
Penicillium, soil mould
P. purpurogenum (P. rubrum) plant pathogen
P. candida, P. camemberti, P. glaucum, cheese making, P. chysogenum (P. notatum) antibiotic penicillin
P. italicum, P. olivaceum, fruit parasites
Penicillium chrysogenum, produces penicillin, yellow pigment
Penicillium expansum, causes apple disease
Penicillium notatum, is NOT suitable for use in schools, produces penicillin
Penicillium roqueforti, used to make blue-veined cheese
Penicillium wortmanii, produce wortmin
Different species produce antibiotics, and are essential for production of certain cheeses, e.g. Roquefort and Camembert. Antibiotics are excreted by micro-organisms to interfere with the growth or metabolism of other micro-organisms. In the original penicillin, the R-group was a mixture and may be varied by adding molecules to the nutrient solution in which the mould is growing. Penicillin interferes with the building up of the cell wall of the cells of Gram positive bacteria.
Gram-positive bacteria appear blue or violet under a microscope from the crystal violet dye in Gram stain. Gram-negative bacteria appear pink-red. However, some bacteria have developed the enzyme penicillinase, that can destroy penicillin.
Peziza, cup fungus, saprophytic in wood
Phallus, stink horns
Phoma foveataPhoma exigua var. foveata causes gangrene of potato
Phomopsis obscurans, causes leaf blight of strawberry
Phomopsisviticola, causes dead-arm disease of grape
Pneumocystis jirovecci, affects AIDS patients
3.26.1 A yeast population
See diagram 9.204: Yeast cell forming bud
Natural sources of yeast include the wax-like coatings on smooth-skinned fruits, especially grapes. However, bakers' yeast is usually obtainable. It reproduces rapidly, making it a good subject for observing population changes under varying conditions.
Set up tubes of sugar, molasses or honey solutions and a water control. Place a quarter cake of crumbled yeast in each tube. Compare the results. Place a one-hole stopper with glass tubing in the sugar and yeast solution and allow the gas produced to bubble through a tube of clear limewater to detect the presence of carbon dioxide. Yeasts reproduce asexually through a process called "budding". Place a drop of the sugar and yeast solution on a microscope slide and cover with a coverslip. Examine the slide with the high power objective. Look for cells with protrusions or buds. If you can see nuclei in the cells, look for their presence in the buds.
Sampling yeast populations
An effective method of studying population growth with micro-organisms is to start a culture each day and, on the final day, to sample and count all cultures. For example, a new yeast culture can be started each day for 10 days, using one grain of yeast for each culture. On the tenth day samples are taken from each culture and counted with a microscope. A special slide for counting blood cells is desirable, but not essential. If the population on a given day is too large to count, dilute a sample by adding 9 parts water to 1 part of sample.
Put about half a cup (about 100 mls) of warm water into a glass. Dissolve 1 teaspoon of sugar of the water. Then add 1 teaspoon of the dried yeast and mix it in well. Write down what it looks and smells like. Put the glass somewhere warm but not hot, e.g. the top of the hot water system, or wrap a towel around the glass and put it in an insulated box. Check the glass after 5 minutes and make the observations again. Note if it changed in looks or smell? Check it again after another 5 minutes, 10 minutes.
3.27 Red yeast rice, Monascus purpureus
It is used to produce red purple fermented rice called "red yeast rice" with the Chinese brand names "Xuezhikang (XZK)" or "Hypocol". Red yeast rice is used for food colouring, e.g. Peking duck and pickled tofu. Also, it is a Chinese herbal medicine. Clinical trials have shown that it may reduce the chance of repeated heart attacks after surgery better than other statins. However, it may cause liver damage.
3.28 Ginger beer "plant" is the yeast Saccharomyces florentinus (S. pyriformis) and the bacterium Lactobacillus hilgardii (Brevibacterium vermiforme).
Saccharomycodes
Seiridium, causes cypress canker
Septoria, causes leaf spot of chrysanthemum
Septoria apiicola, causes late blight of celery
Septoria gerberae, causes leaf spot of gerbera
Septoria ribis, causes leaf spot of blackcurrant
Schizosaccharomyces octosporus
Sphaceloma fawcettii, causes citrus scab disease of lemon
Sphaerotheca
Taphrina deformans, causes leaf curl disease of peach, witches' broom
Trichoderma, a soil mould
Trichophyton
Ringworm disease
Many strains of Trichophyton as medical fungi exist but they are generally classified as T. rubrum (downy type) and T. rubrum (granular type). The downy type has slender microconidia and no macroconidia and causes chronic infection of the skin and nails. The granular type has microconidia and cigar-shaped macroconidia. It causes tinea corporis in South-East Asians and in aborigines in Northern Australia. Also, it causes tinea pedis (athletes' foot) in feet in Europe and North America, a chronic scarring form of tinea capitus (favus) a type of ringworm of the scalp, and dhobie itch (tinea cruris) that affects the groin and nearby regions. Some strains can invade human hairs and cause the "black dot" form of tinea capitis. Also, Epidermophyton causes ringworm.
Tuber, truffle, morel
Venturia
Zygosaccharomyces
3.43.02 Phylum Basidiomycota, basidiomycetes, basidium-producing fungi, club fungi, sexual spores are produced on a club-shaped basidium
e.g. Ganoderma lucidum, white rot, ling zhi, herbal remedy
Agarics, gill fungi
Agaricus bisporus, edible mushroom
Boletes, fleshy pore fungi
Clavarias, coral-like fungi
Gasteronmycetes, puff ball fungi, body ruptures to release spores
Hynoids, spine fungi
Phalloids, stinkhorn fungi
Polypores, bracket fungi
Tholopores, leather shelf fungi
Tremellales, jelly-like fungi
Agaricus, mushroom
See diagram 9.201: Agaricus
Agaricus bisporus, white mushrooms, Swiss brown mushroom, edible mushrooms
Examine the reproductive portion of a mushroom. Choose a ripe fructification and remove the stipe and place the umbrella-shaped part, the pileus, on a piece of paper with the gills downwards. Leave for a few days, then gently lift the pileus. See the arrangement of the gills traced on the paper by thousands of small, black, reproductive spores that have been shed. Study a prepared slide of the longitudinal section of a gill to observe its detailed structure and the means of basidiospore production.

Amanita muscaria, poisonous mushroom
Armillaria, armillaria root rot of strawberries and woody ornamentals
Boletus
Calvatia, giant puffball mushroom
Clavaria
Coprinus, on dung pads
Crucibulum laeve, bird's nest fungus
Cryptococcus
C. gattii, causes mass lesions in the lung and brain. C. neoformans, causes fungal meningitis.
Cyathus
Diptoporus betulinus, "razor strap", bracket fungus on birch trees
Exidea glandulosa, "witches' butter"
 Exobasidium
 Ganoderma, bracket fungi
Geastrum
Lycoperdon, puff ball
Phlebopus boletes
Pleurotus ostreatus, oyster mushroom
Polyporus
Meripilus gigantaeus, bracket fungus
Merulius, dry rot of timber
Phallus, stink horn
Schizophyllum commune, split gill fungus
Venturia inaequalis, causes apple scab mainly of "Granny Smith" and "Delicious" apples
3.43.02a Rusts, Uredinales
Puccinia, wheat rust
Puccinia triticina, wheat stem rust
Puccinia graminis, soybean rust
Puccinia chrysanthemum, of chrysanthemums
Puccinia iridis, of iris
Puccinia lagenophorae, of English marigold
Phakopsora, white pine blister rust, apple cedar rust, hollyhock rust, asparagus rust, white pine blister rust
3.43.02b Smuts
Maize smut (corn smut), Ustilago maydis, sugar cane smut Ustilago scitaminea, loose smut Ustilago nuda
Karnal bunt, partial bunt, caused by Tilletia indica
3.43.03 Phylum Zygomycota, zygomycetes, phaecomycota, phycomycetes, have no cross-walls (septa)
Encephalitozoon cuniculi, causes diarrhoea in AIDS patients
Mucor, cheese making
See diagram 9.202
Place some damp bread under a large jar, and leave it for a few days until it becomes mouldy. Take a small portion of the mouldy bread and examine the fungus responsible with the high power. Look for spore-producing bodies of Mucor. Study prepared slides showing stages in sexual reproduction. Examine a culture of the two strains (+ and -).
Mucor spp.are NOT suitable for use in schools
Mucor genevensis is used to study sexual reproduction.
Mucor hiemalis is used to study sexual reproduction.
Mucor mucedo is the black “pin mould” on bread.
Mucor pusillus (Rhizomucor pusillus) is unsuitable for use in schools.
Phallus, stink horn
Pilobolus
Polyporus stolonifera, bread mould
Rhizoctonia leguminicola red patch disease of red clover, brown patch of lawn grass, "damping-off" disease of seedlings
Rhizoctonia solani collar rot of beans
Rhizopus
Rhizopus nigricans, mouldy bread, Phylum Zygomycota
See diagram 9.196: Rhizopus nigricans, bread mould |  See diagram 9.196.1: Rhizopus oryzae,
Rhizopus genera have stolons, pigmented rhizoids, with sporangiophores from nodes above the rhizoids, dense white to brown cotton-like growth
Rhizopus nigricans, bread mould, stolonifer black bread mould
Rhizopus oryzae (R. arrhizuz) fermentation of foods, Japanese sake
Rhizopus oligosporus, ferments soya beans to make “tempe”
Rhizopus sexualis is used to study linear growth
Rhizopus stolonifer produces lipase
1. Mount a small fragment of mould from old bread or decaying fruit and examine under the low power. Note the filaments that are the vegetative body of this fungus.
2. Invert a smaller flat transparent dish in the bottom of a larger flat transparent dish. Stand a piece of bread on the small dish. Add tap water to the large dish until it is half way up the side of the small dish. Cover the larger dish with its lid and leave the assembly to stand at room temperature. Under these moist chamber conditions, off-white, furry masses of mould (Mucoraceen and Aspergillacae) develop after a few days on the bread. Later these form grey-black or green sporophores.
3. Label 4 plastic bags with zippers as bag 1, bag 2, bag 3, and bag 4. Place a slice of dry white bread in bag 1 and seal. Sprinkle 20 drops of water on a slice of white bread to just make it damp, place it in bag 2 and seal. Sprinkle 20 drops of lemon juice on a slice of white bread, place it in bag 3 and seal. Rinse the eye dropper with water, then sprinkle 20 drops of sugar water on a slice of white bread, place it in the bag 4 and seal. Check the bags daily for two weeks and record your observations. Use graph paper to measure how much the mould spreads and calculate the percentage of the bread covered by the mould. Wash your hands each time after working on the experiment and be very careful not to inhale the mould spores. Note what bread mould needs to grow. Note whether all bread mould is identical. Leave the sealed plastic bag for a long time and note what happens. Repeat the experiment at different temperature, in the light and dark, with different types of bread (some containing preservatives), with different amounts of liquid, with old and fresh bread, with bread and toast.
Uromyces betae silver beet rust
Uromycladium, acacia gall rust fungus
3.43.03a Class Microsporidia
Tiny parasites with no mitochondria
Loma in fish, Abelspora in crab, Amblyspora in mosquito
3.43.04 Deuteromycota (now called the "mitosporic fungi") deuteromycetes, imperfect fungi, fungi imperfecti, anamorphic fungi (They are Ascomycota and Basidiomycota in which sexual reproduction is unknown.)
Arthrobotrys
Blastomyces
Blastomyces dermatitidis pathogen causes blastomycosis, pustules form on the skin, cultures are a biohazard to laboratory personnel!
Candida
Cladosporium, brown food mould, soil mould,
Cladosporium iridis, leaf spot of iris
Dactylella
Epidermophyton
Fusarium
Histoplasma
Verticillium
3.43.05 Myxomycota, Mycetozoa, Myxomycetes slime fungi, fungus animals, fungus-like slime moulds, many micro-organisms but most not fungi, also giant kelps
1.1.1 Kingdom Protista, Heterotrophic protists
Fuligo, yellow slime mould, Protista, Mycetozoa
Sternonitis, Protista, Mycetozoa
Physarum, many headed slime, "pet slime mould", Protista, Mycetozoa
3.43.06 Oomycota, oomycetes, water mould, egg fungi, but it is not a fungus. It is similar to brown algae. The zoospores have two cilia. (They are nowadays usually classified under the Heterokontophyta division of the Algae, or put in the Kingdom Chromista.)
1.1.2 Chromista
1.1.3 Heterokontophyta
Albugo candida (Cystopus), water mould, white rust
Bremia lactucae, downy mildew of lettuce
Monoblepharis
Peronospora
Peronospora destructor, downy mildew of onion
Peronospora jaapiana, downy mildew of rhubarb
Peronospora parasitica, downy mildew of stocks
Peronospora sparsa, downy mildew of rose
Peronospora viciae, downy mildew of pea
Phytophthora
Phytophthora infestans, potato blight (late blight of potato) Phylum Heterokontophyta
Potato blight, die back, root rot, cocoa black pod
This fungus caused the potato famine in Ireland 1845. Examine the leaf of a potato plant infected with potato blight. Look for the lighter patches, or if the disease is advanced they will appear dark brown, where the leaf is attacked by the fungus. Obtain a prepared microscope slide of a section of an infected leaf and observe dark blotches on leaf tips and white mould under the leaves. Study prepared slides showing the method of reproduction.
Phytophthora,. brown rot disease of citrus, especially "Washington Navel" orange and lemons, top and root rot of pineapple
Phytophthora citrophthora, collar rot of citrus
Phytophthora nicotianae, phytophthora blight of passionfruit
Pythium
Pythium, root rot, damping-off fungus, Phylum Oomycota
Pythium blight, cottony blight is a fungal disease of grass, especially turf grass, "damping off" of lawns, dollar spot, greenhouse seedlings and black stem rot of Pelargonium. It causes small patches of blighted grass with shrivelled leaves during warm, wet periods.
Pythium ultimum, black pseudo-bulb rot of cymbidium orchids
Pythium de baryanum, causes seedling “'damping off”, e.g. cress
Observe Pythium under the low and high powers. Study prepared slides of the asexual and sexual methods of reproduction.
Plasmopara viticola, downy mildew of grape
Saprolegnia, water mould, cotton mould
3.43.07 Hyphochtridiomycota, hyphochytridiomycetes, zoospores with just one anterior flagellum
(They are nowadays usually classified under the Heterokontophyta division of the Algae, or put in the Kingdom Chromista.)
1.1.2 Chromista
1.1.3 Heterokontophyta
Aimillaria, Lactarius, Tremella
3.43.08 Phylum Chytridiomycota, Chytridiomycetes, chytrids, Algae: Heterokontophyta zoosporic fungi, aquatic fungi, asexual, single cilium, saprophytic
1.1.3 Heterokontophyta
Allomyces
Batrachochytrium, kills frogs
Chytriomyces
Monoblepharis
Rhizophydium
Synchytrium endobioticum, potato wart disease, black scab
3.43.09 Phylum Glomeromycota, Glomerales, mycorrhizal associations, arbuscular (lives inside plant cells) mutualistic
Acaulospora
Geosiphon
Glomus
Nostoc
Pacispora
Paraglomus
Physoderma
Siphonaria
3.29 Cork taint of wine, "corky" wine (2,4,6-TCA)
See 16.1.3.2: 3. Phenols (group: OH-C in a benzene ring) (phenol = C6H5O6)
The "damp cardboard" taste of corky wine is caused usually by 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (2,4,6-TCA) produced mainly by Trichoderma and Fusarium strains of fungi when in contact with chlorine used to bleach corks made from the bark of Quercus suber. The taint taste of 2,4,6-TCA may also cause the "Rio" defect in South American coffee and affect beer, sake and fish and prawns. Nowadays, the wine cork is being replaced by screw-top caps, e.g. the Stelvin capsule, "Stelvin Lux", that seals the bottle but allows a very small amount of air to touch the surface of the wine to allow maturation.
9.203 Bathroom and kitchen mould
Moulds may grow in the "grout" between bathroom and kitchen tiles. In Australia these moulds are usually Penicillium, Rhizopus, Phoma, Phialophora, and Fusarium. They are mostly harmless although Phoma may cause allergies. They can be cleaned off with bleach solutions.
9.204 Slide culture preparation to identify fungi
See diagram 9.208: Simple agar block method
1. To identify many fungi you must observe the conidiophores, i.e. the specialized hyphae where asexual spores cut off at the ends, and the way in which spores are produced. This method allows you to study fungi with little disturbance. Use one agar plate of nutrient agar, e.g. potato dextrose agar.
2. Use a sterile blade to cut out an agar block, 7 x 7 mm, small enough to fit under a coverslip.
3. Flip the agar block up onto the surface of the agar plate. Inoculate the four sides of the agar block with spores or mycelia fragments of the fungus to be grown.
4. Place a flamed coverslip centrally upon the agar block. Incubate the plate at 26oC until growth and spore-forming have occurred. Remove the coverslip from the agar block.
5. Apply a drop of 95% alcohol as a wetting agent. Gently lower the coverslip onto a small drop of lactophenol cotton blue on a clean glass slide. Leave the slide overnight to dry and later seal the edges with a coat of clear fingernail polish followed by one coat of red coloured polish.
9.205 Yeast population, bakers' yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Phylum Ascomycota
See diagram 9.204: Yeast cell forming bud
The simplest form of asexual reproduction is budding, in which a protuberance grows out from the parent cell and finally cutting itself off to become an independent cell. Budding occurs in yeasts. Natural sources of yeast include the wax-like coatings on smooth skinned fruits, especially grapes. However, bakers' yeast is usually obtainable. It reproduces rapidly, making it a good subject for observing population changes under varying conditions.
1. Set up tubes of sugar, molasses or honey solutions and a water control. Put a quarter cake of crumbled yeast in each tube. Compare the results. Put a one-hole stopper with glass tubing in the sugar and yeast solution. Allow the gas produced to bubble through a tube of clear limewater to detect the presence of carbon dioxide. Test the gas produced by the sugar and yeast solution.
2. Fill a test-tube half full of 10% sugar solution, drop in a piece of bakers' yeast, plug the test-tube with cotton wool and leave to stand at room temperature. After 12 to 24 hours, transfer a drop from this culture on to a microscope slide using a glass rod, put a coverslip over it and examine the preparation under a microscope. Look for cells with protrusions or asexual buds. If you can see nuclei in the cells, look for their presence in the buds.
9.206.1 Sampling yeast populations
1. Start a culture each day for 10 days using one grain of yeast for each culture. On the tenth day sample and count all cultures with a microscope. Use a special slide for counting blood cells, but it is not essential. If the population on a given day is too large to count, dilute a sample by adding 1 mL of the sample and 9 mL of water. Multiply the count by 10 to get the actual sample size. If one dilution is not enough, further dilution may be done until it becomes easy to count the number of organisms. The multiplication factor for two dilutions is 10 by 10 or 100: for three dilutions it is 10 by 10 by 10 or 1, 000. Note that each successive dilution is started from part of the previous dilution, not from the original sample. Graph the data obtained from cultures for analysis. Time is the independent variable and population size is the dependent variable.
2. An effective method of studying population growth with micro-organisms is to start a culture each day and, on the final day, to sample and count all cultures. For example, a new yeast culture can be started each day for 10 days, using one grain of yeast for each culture. On the tenth day samples are taken from each culture and counted with a microscope. A special slide for counting blood cells is desirable, but not essential. If the population on a given day is too large to count, dilute a sample by adding 9 parts water to 1 part of sample. Use 1 ml of sample and 9 ml of water. Multiply by 10 to get the actual sample size. If one dilution is not enough, make further dilutions until it becomes easy to count the number of organisms. The multiplication factor for two dilutions is 10 by 10 or 100: for three dilutions it is 10 by 10 by 10 or 1, 000. Note that each successive dilution is started from part of the previous dilution, not from the original sample. Graph the data obtained from cultures for analysis with time as the independent variable and population size is the dependent variable.
9.207.1 Find wild yeasts in flowers
See 4.1.2: Enrichment of wild yeast strains
Put a few freshly picked flowers of deadnettle, woundwort or nasturtium, in a beaker. Cover over with a suitably sized transparent plastic bag and leave the flowers to stand in this "humidity chamber" at room temperature. After two days remove some flowers that are already open. Pull off the petals and squeeze the nectar from the nectaries onto a microscope slide. Put a coverslip over the nectar and examine it under a microscope. Look for nectar yeast cells. Note the shape of the nectar yeast cells and the size of the buds. Compare the nectar yeast cells with the bakers' yeast cells. Observe the cross form or star form of the branching chains formed by the wild yeasts on budding. Use agar syrup to culture the yeasts and moulds.
9.208 Lichens
A lichen is the symbiosis of a fungi and algae. The photosynthetic partner in the lichen thallus is called a photobiont. Each type of lichen has a characteristic shape. Crustose lichens form a flattened thin crust on rocks, soil and tree bark
Foliose lichens are like leaves on rocks and tree bark, sometimes with a paper texture.
Fructicose lichens have upright stalks with many thread-like branches, sometimes with fruiting structures at the ends.
Squamulose (loosely attached thallus) lichens have a primary and a secondary thallus.
The fungi are mainly Ascomycetes. Lichens may be nitrogen-fixing. Lichens are found in most places in the world and are very susceptible to air pollution in the atmosphere. They may be damaged by sulfur dioxide or other harmful gases, and may die. So lichens are sensitive plant detectors of air pollution. The fungi are mainly Ascomycetes. Example of common lichens include the following: Acarospora, a crustose lichen that forms a thin crust, Cladonia, cup lichen, reindeer "moss", a squamulose, loosely attached thallus lichen with a primary and a secondary thallus, Evernia, oak moss lichen, Hypogymnia, a foliose lichens like a leaf, Lobaria, lungwort, a nitrogen-fixing lichen, Peltigera, dog lichen, a nitrogen-fixing lichen and herbal medicine, Stricta, a nitrogen-fixing lichen, Usnea, a fructicose lichen that has a stalk.
1. Examine a specimen of a common lichen. Study a prepared slide showing a transverse section of the thallus revealing the presence of alga and fungus. Look for the penetrating haustoria, long thin colourless strands of the fungus, and the green cells of the algae.
2. Attach 10 lichens on a board. Then put them in three places, e.g. near a factory, in the central city and far from the factory. Observe any change in the lichens after one mouth. Count the percentage of damaged lichens. Lichens indicators are used as indicators of air pollution and species diversity.
9.208.1 Examples of lichens from seven families
Division Ascomycota, sac fungi
Class Ascomycetes
Order Lecanorales
Family Parmeliaceae
Bryoria bicolor, horsehair lichen
Cavernularia lophyrea, pitted lichen
Cetrelia monachorum, giant shield lichen
Cornicularia normoerica, brittle lichen
Cetraria islandica island cetraria lichen ("Iceland Moss") is a lichen growing abundantly in the mountainous regions of Europe. It has a bitter taste, and is used medicinally.
Evernia furfuraceae, ring lichen, tree moss
Evernia prunastri, ring lichen, oakmoss
Evernia divarcata, ring lichen
Hypogymnia austerodes, tube lichen, a foliose lichens like a leaf
Letharia vulpina, wolf lichen
Lobaria pulmonaria, lung lichen, lungwort, a nitrogen-fixing lichen
Parmeliopsis hyperopta, bran lichen
Platismatia glauca, ragged lichen
Pseudephebe pubescens, blackcurly lichen
Pseudevernia cladonia, light and dark lichen
Parmelia cirrhata (P. nepalensis) shield lichen, Indian moss
Parmelia sexatilis, foliose lichen
Peltigera canina, felt lichen (dog lichen), a nitrogen-fixing lichen and herbal medicine
Ramalina fastigiata, Chinese moss, Usneaceae
Ramalina mensiesii, lace lichen, Spanish moss
Ramalina siliquoa, rock lichen
Ramalina subcomplanata, Indian "moss"
Menegazzia terebrata, honeycombed lichen
Usnea barbata, beard lichen, tree "moss"
Usnea lucea, haraphool
Usnea rubicunda, old man's beard, tree lichen
Family Acarosporaceae
Acarospora tilesii, cracked lichen, a crustose lichen that forms a thin crust
Family Alectoriaceae
Alectoria lata, witch's hair lichen
Family Bacidiaceae
Bacidia arceutina, dotted lichen
Family Cladoniaceae
Cladonia stricta, cup lichen
Cladonia cornuta, horn lichen
Family Lecoraceae
Lecanora confusa, rim lichen
Family Physciaceae
Physcia crispa, rosette lichen
1. Examine a specimen of a common lichen. Study a prepared slide showing a transverse section of the thallus revealing the presence of alga and fungus. Look for the penetrating haustoria.
2. Attach 10 lichens on a board. Then put them in three places, e.g. near a factory, in the central city and far from the factory. Observe any change in the lichens after one mouth. Count the percentage of damaged lichens. Lichens indicators are used as indicators of air pollution and species diversity.
9.212 Ginger beer plant
The Ginger beer "plant" is the yeast Saccharomyces florentinus (S. pyriformis) and the bacterium Lactobacillus hilgardii (Brevibacterium vermiforme). Add 5g of bakers' yeast to 25 ml of water and 1/2 teaspoon of ground ginger and sugar. Put in a screw-top jar and add half a teaspoon of sugar and some ground ginger every day for a week to keep the fermentation going. Dissolve 50g of sugar in 50 ml of boiling water. Strain the mixture and add the sugar solution and lemon juice to the liquid. Ginger beer soft drink is made from ginger powder and does not contain alcohol.
9.214 Cellulose digestion
Cellulose is a fibrous substance that helps to provide plants with a rigid structure. It is the most important plant polymer, making up some 40-50% of the mature plant cell wall. It is also the most abundant carbohydrate. The molecules are very large and long and contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Cellulose is a very stable substance at ordinary temperatures, and the types of micro-organism that can decompose and thus recycle it are extremely important in sustaining the turnover of organic matter for the rest of the living world. It often occurs in a complex mixture with lignin, another plant polymer, called lignocellulose, in wood, forest and agricultural wastes, and in waste paper. Cellulose is not soluble in water, so micro-organisms cannot absorb it into their cells but they secrete the enzyme cellulase which partly digests the cellulose to breaks it down into soluble sugar molecules which the microbes can absorb and use. Higher organisms do not make cellulase, so herbivores cannot digest cellulose themselves. They depend on cellulolytic bacteria in their intestinal tracts to digest the cellulose for their use. On land the major decomposers of cellulose are fungi, aided by a few aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. In marine habitats bacteria are primarily responsible for breaking down cellulose, but in fresh water aquatic fungi carry out this function in well aerated zones, with bacteria playing an increasingly important role as the amount of oxygen diminishes. Cellulolytic bacteria include species of Cellulomonas, Pseudomonas and Ruminococcus. Cellulolytic fungi include Chaetomium, Fusarium, and Trichoderma.
9.215 Disinfectants, antiseptics and antibiotics
Antimicrobial substances include disinfectants, antiseptics and antibiotics. Disinfection is a procedure that destroys or inactivates micro-organisms. It usually involves the treatment of non-living objects such as surfaces or liquids with chemicals (disinfectants) e.g. chlorine, phenols and hypochlorites. Antisepsis is the disinfection of living tissues with chemicals (antiseptics) e.g. hydrogen peroxide, iodine and diluted alcohol. Antibiotics are chemicals that, inhibit or kill certain micro-organisms even at very low concentrations, Penicillins are a well-known group of antibiotics.
Disinfectants and antiseptics that kill bacteria are said to be bactericidal. Others merely halt the growth of bacteria and if inactivated, e.g. by dilution, bacterial growth may be resumed. These substances are said to be bacteriostatic. So a bactericidal disinfectant or antiseptic may become bacteriostatic when diluted. Antibiotics are produced by microbes as a natural defence against other microbes. Some are still produced commercially using microorganisms, although a large number are manufactured chemically. Some antibiotics are active against a narrow range of species whilst others affect a broad spectrum of organisms. The ability to make antimicrobial substances is not limited to microbes; most animals have antibacterial substances in their bodily secretions, such as lysosyme in sweat and tears. Plant materials such as garlic (Allium sativum), tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) and oil of cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) also have antimicrobial properties.