School Science Lessons
Animals
2012-01-31 SP
Please send comments to: J.Elfick@uq.edu.au
Table of contents
1.0 Animal kingdom
1.1 Animals and ecology
1.2 Parasitic diseases
1.0 Animal kingdom
3.0 Animals (Primary)
1.0.1 Kingdom Protista
2.0.0 Kingdom Animalia, (animals)
2.0 Phylum Protozoa
1.0.0
Kingdom Protista
2.0 Protozoa
3.0 Phylum Porifera, (sponges)
5.0 Phylum Coelenterata, (Phylum Ctenophora, comb
jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
6.0 Phylum Platyhelminthes, (flatworms)
7.0 Phylum Nematoda, (nematodes)
8.0 Phylum Annelida, (segmented worms)
9.0 Phylum Arthropoda, (crustaceans, insects, spiders)
13.0 Class Insecta, (insects)
14.0 Class Arachnida, (arachnids) spiders
15.0 Phylum Mollusca, (molluscs)
17.0 Phylum Echinodermata, (echinoderms)
18.0 Phylum Chordata, (chordates)
19.0 Phylum Hemichordata, (hemichordates)
20.0 Subphylum Urochordata, (sea squirts, tunicates)
21.0 Subphylum Vertebrata, (vertebrates)
24.0 Class Agnatha, Petromyzontida, jawless fish, lampreys
25.0 Class Chondrichthes, cartilaginous fish, elasmobranchs, sharks, rays,
stingrays
26.0 Class Osteichthyes, bony fish
28.0 Class Sarcopterygii (Crossopterygii), (lobe-finned fish) Coelacanth
30.0 Subclass Dipnoi, (lungfishes)
32.0 Class Amphibia, (amphibians)
34.0 Class Reptilia, (reptiles)
36.0 Class Aves, (birds)
39.0 Class Mammalia, (mammals)
1.1 Animals and ecology
4.2 Animal friends, (Primary)
4.1 Animal legs, (Primary)
9.31 Animal cages
9.30 Animal traps
1.2 Animals and plants, (Primary)
6.1.1 Animals without backbones, (Primary)
1.3 Different animals, (Primary)
9.32 Food and water for animals
6.1 Food chains in the forest, (Primary)
5.7 Food chains in the sea, (Primary)
5.2 Protect sea animals, (Primary)
5.1 Sea animals and plants, (Primary)
3.5 Uses of animals and plants, (Primary)
2.0 Phylum Protozoa
The following is a simple classification of protozoa. The more modern
classification is shown beneath numbers 1 to 4. However, to date, (October,
2010), there is no universally agreed classification of all species formerly
classified under Phylum protozoa. Protozoa are single-celled (unicellular)
but may be colonial if no division of functions. Gas exchange and excretion
is by diffusion. Osmoregulation in freshwater forms is by a contractile
vacuole. Asexual reproduction is by binary fission and sometimes sexual
reproduction by conjugation occurs.
1. Class Rhizopoda, move by pseudopodia, feed by phagocytosis
9.0.16 Phylum Amoebozoa, (Phylum Rhizopoda),
e.g. Amoeba
9.0.12 Phylum Foraminifera
9.0.11 Phylum Actinopoda, radiolarians
2. Class Mastigophora, move by flagella and feed by direct absorption
9.0.9 Phylum Euglenozoa, e.g. Euglena
3. Class Ciliophora, move by cilia and feed by phagocytosis through a
"mouth" part of the cell
9.0.8 Phylum Ciliophora, ciliate, Paramecium
4. Class Sporozoa, parasitic so no obvious method of locomotion, feed
by direct absorption from the host
9.0.7 Phylum Apicomplexa, sporozoans,
e.g. Plasmodium
9.35 Succession
in a pond community, hay infusion cultures, Amoeba, Chlamydomonas,
Paramecium, Protozoa
5.0 Phylum Coelenterata, (Phylum
Ctenophora, comb jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
(Modern taxonomists use the following phyla instead of Coelenterata: Phylum
Ctenophora, comb jellies, Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, sea anemones)
Phylum Coelenterata are mostly marine colonial organisms, with two cell
layers, ectoderm and endoderm, separated by jelly-like mesoglea, have radial
symmetry, hollow cup-like body, (enteron cavity), with only one entrance,
tentacles around the mouth, independent stinging cells not connected to the
network nervous system. Coelenterata have two body forms. The hydroid form
is a sedentary polyp. The medusoid form is a planktonic jellyfish-like organism.
1. Class Hydrozoa, have polyp and medusoid forms in the life cycle
Order Hydrida
e.g. Hydra, is one of the few freshwater species
See diagram 9.37.4: Hydra
Obelia forms a colony of hollow tubes attached to seaweed with
polyp heads, hydranths, specialized either for feeding or for reproducing
by medusa buds.
See diagram 9.37.7: Obelia
Order Siphonophora, marine pelagic with apical float, pneumatophore
e.g. Physalia, "Portuguese man-of-war, "bluebottle"
See diagram 9.37.6: Physalia
2. Class Scyphozoa, jellyfish, medusoid form is the main stage in the
life cycle
e.g. Aurelia
See diagram 9.37.5: Aurelia jellyfish
3. Class Anthozoa, (Actinozoa), only the polyp stage in the life cycle
Order Alcyonaria, corals,
e.g. Red coral, Corallium rubrum
Order Zoantharia
e.g. sea anemone, Actinia equina
5.3 Corals and jellyfish, (Primary)
6.29 Corals, Protect coral reefs, (Primary)
6.0 Phylum Platyhelminthes, (flatworms)
Many platyhelminths are parasites of humans and other animals. To control
these parasites their life cycle can be broken by killing the hosts or the
parasites in the host, thoroughly cooking food that may contain parasites,
and sanitary disposal of human and animal wastes. Make sure that children
wash their hands thoroughly after handling cats and dogs. Platyhelminths
have a dorsoventrally flattened body (flattened from above), bilateral symmetry
(head, tail, left and right sides), three cell layers but no body cavity,
(triploblastic, three cell layers, ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm). Both sex
organs are present in the one organism, (hermaphrodite). They have a primitive
brain and paired ventral nerve cords. The three classes of platyhelminthes
are as follows:
1. Class Turbellaria, planarians, are free-living flatworms with simple
anterior eyes and can replace lost body parts, (regeneration). They move with
cilia and rhythmical muscle contraction to scavenge detritus.
2. Class Trematoda, flukes, have a complex attaching devices of suckers
and sometimes hooks. They attach themselves to the interior of the host and
suck in blood and mucus with a muscular pharynx.
Cat liver fluke, (Opisthorchiasis felineus)
Chinese liver fluke, (Clonorchis sinensis)
Lung fluke, (Paragonimus westermani)
Schistosoma fluke, (Schistosoma mansoni, S. japonicum),
bilharzia, schistosomiasis disease, infection by skin penetration, parasite
in freshwater snails
Sheep liver fluke, (Fasciola hepatica)
See diagram 9.37.1: Fasciola hepatica
3. Class Cestoda, tapeworms, attach to the gut wall of host by an attaching
device (scolex) with hooks and suckers. The body is divided into segments,
(proglottids) that are continually produced behind the scolex. The remain
attached to the interior of the hosts digestive system and absorb the predigested
food.
Pork tapeworm, (Taenia solium), infection from eating undercooked
pork
See diagram 9.37.2: Tapeworm
Hydatid tapeworm, (Echinococcus granulosis), infection from faeces
in dog fur
See diagram 9.37.3: Life cycle of Echinococcus
granulosis
Cat tapeworm, (Dipylidium caninum), infection from ingestion of
cat flea
9.36 Flatworms, Dugesia, Planaria
9.36.1 Flatworms, behaviour, Dugesia, Planaria
7.0 Phylum Nematoda, (nematodes,
roundworms, pinworms, threadworms, hookworms
See diagram 9.37.9: Rhabditis mature female
Human intestinal roundworm, (Ascaris lumbricoides)
Dog roundworm, (Toxocara canis)
8.0 Phylum Annelida, (segmented
worms)
Soft cylindrical bodies, segmented, bilaterally symmetrical, blood vessels,
bristles (chaetae), the main body cavity (coelom) surrounded by mesoderm
with ducts to exterior to carry wastes (filtered by nephridia) and gametes,
paired ventral nerve cords
1. Class Polychaeta, mostly marine, move by undulations and parapodia
bearing many chaetae, separate sexes, free-swimming larva, distinct head
2. Class Oligochaeta, terrestrial burrowing, digest garden detritus including
cellulose, move by peristalsis ripples, few chaetae, hermaphrodite, eggs
laid in cocoons, no larva
See diagram 9.37.8: T.S. Earthworm, Common earthworm,
(Lumbricus terrestris)
9.33 Earthworm behaviour
3. Class Hirudinea, leeches, suck blood and use anticoagulant, segments
divided into rings, no chaetae or parapodia, hermaphrodite, eggs laid in cocoons,
no larva
13.0 Class Insecta, (insects)
3.1 Ant life cycle, (Primary)
9.34.0 Ant study
9.29 Ant sucker, (Primary)
9.34.1 Ants, Flying ants and termites
3.3 Butterfly life cycle, (Primary)
3.4 Cockroach, grasshopper, (Primary)
9.9 Cockroach, Body of cockroach or grasshopper
9.35.1 Fruit fly, (Drosophila), cultures
of fruit flies
9.6.0 Fruit fly, Drosophila experiments,
Mendel's laws
9.1.6 Honeybee life cycle, Apis mellifera
9.1.7 Honeybee body structure, Apis mellifera
9.27 Insect behaviour diary
9.25 Insect cage
9.19 Insect collecting
9.29 Insect collecting
9.20 Insect collecting nets, air net, sweep net
9.23 Insect collecting, mounting boxes
9.24 Insect collecting, mounting block guide
9.21 Insect-killing container
9.22 Insect stretching board (setting board)
9.26 Insectarium
3.2 Mosquito life cycle, (Primary)
9.28 Night insects
15.0 Phylum Mollusca, (molluscs)
5.4 Shellfish, molluscs, (Primary)
17.0 Phylum Echinodermata,
(echinoderms)
5.5 Starfish, echinoderms, (Primary)
26.0 Class Osteichthyes, bony
fish, (Class Actinopterygii, ray-finned fish)
9.217 Blood flow in a fish
5.6 Fish life cycle, (Primary)
4.3 Parts of a fish, (Primary)
32.0 Amphibia, (amphibians)
4.4 Frog life cycle, (Primary)
9.10 Frog life cycle
9.10.1 Frogs and toads
34.0
Reptilia, (reptiles)
4.5 Lizards and snakes, (Primary)
6.2 Turtles, Protect turtles, (Primary)
36.0 Aves, Class Aves, (birds)
9.1 Bird beaks
2.3 Bird beaks and feet, (Primary)
2.1 Bird feathers, (Primary)
9.2 Bird feet
9.5 Bird houses
9.4 Bird nests
2.2 Bird sounds, (Primary)
9.7 Birds in your garden
2.6 Care of birds, (Primary)
9.3 Casts of bird footprints
Chicken project, (Agriculture)
Duck project, (Agriculture)
2.4 Different birds, (Primary)
9.6 Feeders to attract birds
2.5 Protect birds, (Primary)
39.0 Class Mammalia, (mammals)
3.6 Cats, Care of cats, (Primary)
4.6 Dogs, Care of dogs, (Primary)
9.32 Food and water for mammals
Goat project, (Agriculture)
Pig project, (Agriculture)
9.1.6 Honeybee life cycle,
Apis mellifera
A colony of honeybees contains a female queen bee, 30,000 to 40,000 female
worker bees and up to 100 male drones.
The fertilized queen bee, the largest bee, that can lay more than 1000
eggs per day. She has only one mating period when she leaves the hive more
than once over a period of three days during seven mating flights to mate
with 7 to 10 drones, often from other colonies. Then she can used the stored
sperm to lay fertilized eggs. While laying eggs she is fed and cleaned by
worker bees. She can live for two to four years but beekeepers usually replace
her after one year because she produces most of the eggs in the first year.
The worker bees are undeveloped females that do not normally lay eggs.
They are 13 -17 mm long and live for about 6 weeks. As a hive nurse they
feed other bees, i.e. drones, queen and brood, clean and cap cells, pack pollen,
receive nectar into the hive, clean the hive and build honeycomb to store
honey. As hive guards they protect the hive from other insects. As foragers
they collect nectar from plants and in doing so becomes dusted with pollen.
They carry the pollen to other plants where the pollen fertilizes the ovules
of plants to allow cross-pollination.
The drones are male bees. They do not have a sting. They are shorter than
the queen and twice the weight of the workers. They have larger eyes and
antennae than the workers to help them find the queen for mating. They die
after mating because they have no other function or they may be evicted from
the hive by the beginning of winter.
The artificial beehive contains up to 40,000 bees. The honey super contains
eight frames on which the bees build honeycomb. The frames can be removed
to obtain the honey. The brood chamber also contains honeycomb but the cells
are not as deep as as in the super because they are used for egg-laying and
brood rearing. This is where the queen usually lives and lays eggs. The
comb is white when new and becomes yellow as it absorbs pollen during food
storage. I t becomes darker if used for generations of bees. The temperature
in the hive is maintained at 34oC. During cooler weather the bees
eat more honey to provide energy for warmth. During hotter weather the bring
in water on their honey stomachs, deposit the water on the honeycomb then
use their wings to fan the moisture as a form of evaporative cooling. Older
worker guard the entrance to the hive to deter intruders, including hungry
bees from other hives.
The queen lays eggs but only the worker eggs are fertilized. The eggs
hatch after about three days as larvae (grubs). They are fed royal jelly
produced by the hypopharyngeal glands of the workers but his feeding son
stops except for the larvae that will develop as queens. The larvae develop
as pupae then undergo metamorphosis to become queens after sixteen days
or workers after twenty one days or drones after twenty four days. However,
before a new queen is hatched the old queen leaves the hive with some worker
and drone companions as a swarm to find a new home located by scout bees.
Bees communicate by dances, vibrations and body chemicals. Scout bees
first locate flowers with nectar and pollen, return to the hive and communicate
the position of the flowers with buzzing noises, round dance and figure eight
wiggle dance using the position of the sun as a prime source of direction.
9.1.7 Honeybee body structure, Apis mellifera
See diagram 9.7.1 Make a paper frame to study
honeybees
1. Examine the hairs on the legs
Cut a piece of paper the size of a coverslip from a sheet of writing paper
and fold to form a two layered triangle. Cut from this triangle the area
so that only a strip 2 mm wide remains. Unfold to give a small paper frame.
Holding it with forceps, preferably at one corner, put a very thin layer of
all purpose glue on both sides and attach it to a slide. Examine a bee. It
can be seen with the naked eye, and even better with a magnifying glass, that
the body of the bee is almost completely covered with hairs. Pluck a clump
of hairs from a well covered site with forceps. Put it inside the fixed paper
frame on the slide and press a coverslip over the upper side of the frame
which is already coated with glue. The hairs are now firmly enclosed between
the slide and the coverslip. Such a specimen keeps for a long time and is
called a permanent preparation. Permanent preparations can also be prepared
with other specimens by this method. However they must be absolutely dry
as, for example, the scales of butterfly wings. If the specimens are moist,
they go mouldy in the enclosed space between the slide and the coverslip.
Inspect the preparation with a microscope, magnification 50 X. the hairs.
When collecting pollen, bees often roll over in the flowers, thus covering
their whole body with pollen. The hairs are adapted to the activity of pollen
gathering.
Commercial
Microscope slide insect anatomy: Apis (bee), wings, three legs, spiracles
2. Examine the antennas
Count the number of parts making up a single antenna and note their relative
arrangement. Examine the antennas with a magnifying glass. The segment attached
to the head is called the scape. A flagellum consisting of individual joints
projects from one corner. Count the joints in the female worker and the drones.
Between the shaft and flagellum is a small, ring shaped connecting piece
called a turning joint. Transfer a drop of glycerine to the middle of a slide
with a glass rod to examine the dark coloured sections of a bee. Use forceps
to remove both antennas from a bee at the point where they are attached to
the head. Put them in the drop of glycerine on the slide and place a coverslip
on top. Avoid trapping air bubbles by holding the sides of the coverslip
with thumb and index finger and mount it at an angle. Then draw it into the
glycerine drop and let it settle gently into place without applying pressure.
First examine the preparation under a microscope, magnification 50 X. The
structure of the antennas can be seen more clearly than with a magnifying
glass. Round pores are visible on their surface. Where and how are they distributed?
How large are they? The pores can be seen in more detail using a higher powered
objective, 40 X. The large pores are the openings of the olfactory pits,
and very fine probing setae emerge from the smaller ones. Prepare a drawing
showing the component parts of a bee antennas. What purpose do the antennas
of the bee serve?
3. Examine the wings
The three main sections of the body of a bee are head, thorax and abdomen.
The wings are attached to the middle section, the thorax. There are two
pairs of wings, one pair each of forewings and hindwings. Discover how the
wings of the bee are constructed. The forewings and hindwings on each side
are linked by hooks and grooves so that they move together in flight and
fold away neatly when in the hive. Choose a bee which has all its wings present,
undamaged and not twisted. Hold the bee between the thumb and index finger
of the left hand so that its back faces upwards and its head points forward.
Using forceps, grasp the outermost tip of the right fore wing and bend it
backwards over the surface of the hindwing. Then draw it slowly forward again.
The trailing edge of the fore wing should graze over the surface of the hindwing.
What can you see? Repeat the process again, if necessary several times until
something attracts your attention. Next, examine the wings with a magnifying
glass. Are they all the same size? How are they constructed? Using pointed
scissors cut off both wings on one side as close as possible to the body.
Transfer a drop of glycerine to a slide using a glass rod and introduce the
wings into it and place a coverslip over them. Examine the preparation under
a microscope, magnification 50 X. What can you see on the wings? How are
they constructed? Very examine the middle part of the front edge of the hindwing.
What do you find there? There is a brown strip in this middle section. It
is wider than the "veins" of the wing, runs close to the edge and stands
out clearly. At this point the skin of the front wing wraps over, making a
fold. Together with the little hook, hamuli, on the hindwing it forms the
coupling apparatus which is essential for flight. What is the function of
the coupling apparatus of the bee? Remember what happens when the front wing
is drawn forwards over the surface of the rear wing.
4. Examine the legs
The bee has three pairs of legs. Like the wings, they are attached to
the middle section of the body, the thorax. Examine the legs of the bee
to discover how they are constructed. With the lancet form dissecting needle
tease off all the legs of the bee flush with the body. Be sure that the
legs are completely detached and that nothing remains hanging from the body.
First examine them under a magnifying glass. It can be clearly seen that
each leg consists of several different sections. The uppermost portion attached
directly to the body is the coxa. Then follows the trochanter, the femur,
the tibia and the tarsus, which consists of five tarsomeres or tarsal joints.
The first, uppermost, tarsal joint is much larger than the other four. The
claws are attached to the last, lowest, tarsomere. How many claws are there?
See whether all the legs of the bee are constructed in this way. What is
the hair pattern? The hind legs of the bee are collecting legs. Examine
them closely to see why they are called this. On the inner side of the first
tarsal joint are transverse rows of stiff hairs like bristles. They can be
clearly seen with the magnifying glass. They form the pollen brushes with
which the bee brushes off the flower dust, or pollen, from its body. Count
the rows of bristles. On the outer surface of the tibia there is a smooth
hairless area which is slightly concave. This depression is called the corbicula,
or pollen basket, . It is used for storing pollen. Hairs surround the edge
of the basket. What is their shape? And how are they arranged? In what direction
do they point? What do ta slight concavity surrounded by hairs. hey do? Using
a glass rod place a drop of glycerine in the middle of a microscope slide,
place a collecting leg in the glycerine and place a coverslip over it. Examine
the specimen under the microscope, magnification 50 X. The enlarged image
shows the pollen press situated at the junction of the first tarsal joint
and the tibia. The pollen press packs the pollen into small clumps which
are then deposited in the corbicula. This is how bees "breeches" are formed.
What does the pollen press look like? Prepare a foreleg from a bee in the
same way, and also examine it at magnification 50 X. The fore legs are the
cleaning legs of the bee. At the upper end of the first tarsomere is a semicircular
depression, or notch, fitted with fine setae like a comb. This is called
an antenna cleaner. At the lower end of the tibia there is a lateral jointed
spur, the fibula. When the bee bends the first tarsomere towards the tibia,
the fibula closes the cleaning notch. The bee then draws its antennas through
the comb to remove any adhering pollen grains. Note which legs of the bee
are used for cleaning and which are used for for collecting. Note the position
of the brushes and the corbicula on the collecting legs. The bee clean its
antennas with the antennas cleaner.
The underside of the body is covered in soft hairs. Pollen sticks to these
soft hairs when the worker bee enters a flower. The hairs on the forlegs
and middle legs act like combs to sweep it together to be put into the pollen
basket.
5. Examine the sting apparatus
The ovipositor through which the queen bee lays eggs is modified in the
workers to form a sting. The bee's ‘sting’ consisting of a barb and attached
venom sac located on posterior. A wasp may sting repeatedly. The sting causes
local pain with swelling later and perhaps an allergic reaction. Remove
a bee sting by sliding it out with a fingernail. Then wipe the sting area
clean and apply ice. Seek urgent medical attention, especially if sting is
around face or neck. A wasp may sting repeatedly. Apply ice and seek medical
attention.
Only female bees, both workers and queens, possess a sting apparatus,
which is situated in the end segment of the abdomen. It is used as a weapon.
Examine the structure of the sting apparatus of the bee. Transfer a drop
of water from a beaker to a slide with a glass rod. Put a bee on its back
on a ground glass screen and hold it firmly at the front end of the abdomen
with either forceps or your fingers. Place a pointed dissecting needle on
the centre of the abdomen and stroke it backwards, pressing gently. The sting
will be pressed out of the abdomen, usually with the first stroke. Take hold
of it with the pointed forceps, draw it out from the abdomen together with
all the adhering organs and place the whole in the drop of water of the slide.
Mount a coverslip over it and examine the specimen under a microscope, magnification
50 X. The sting is clearly visible. What shape is it? And what colour? If
it has been arranged in a useful position barbs can be seen at the tip of
the sting on both sides. In which direction do the tips of these barbs point?
And why? At the upper end of the sting is a swollen sac-like structure from
the other end of which hangs a long thin thread. If removed undamaged from
the abdomen this thread will be seen to be divided into two short branches.
These two threads are the venom, or "acid", glands. The venom released from
them then passes, for storage, into the swelling which is called the venom
sac. On either side of the sting lie various plates and muscles which are
used when the bee injects the sting into the body of its victim. All these
parts collectively form the sting apparatus of the bee. Observe the constituent
parts and their relative arrangement of the sting apparatus.
6. The mouth parts consist of a "tongue" (labium)
that can be enclosed near the head by the labial palps and maxillae. Nectar
can be drawn up the grooved surface of the labium by capillary action and
the pumping action of muscles in the head. These elongated mouth parts can
be folded back under the head when not in use leaving the short stout mandibles
free to chew pollen, handle wax and repel enemies.
9.1 Bird beaks
See diagram 9.3.5.1 | See
diagram 9.3.5.2 | See diagram 9.1.2 | See diagram 9.1.3
Study beak types and observe the feeding behaviour
of birds with a particular type of beak. Investigate different beak uses.
9.2 Bird feet
Study feet types and observe the behaviour of birds with particular feet
type, e.g. wading, walking, swimming, perching, hunting, and carrying objects.
Many birds use their feet in perching or grasping, e.g. the woodpecker.
Other birds use their feet primarily for walking, e.g. quail. Water fowl
have webbed feet for wading and swimming, e.g. ducks, pelicans. Hunting
birds have large talons, e.g. hawks, owls.
9.3 Casts of bird footprints
Make casts of foot imprints found in soft soil or mud. Use cardboard,
paper clips, plaster of Paris and a spoon. Form a cylinder with cardboard
and a paper clip. Put the cylinder around a track. Pour a plaster of Paris
into the cylinder. When the plaster hardens, a raised or negative print
of the track forms. Use the negative print to make a positive print. Organize
casts into categories based upon use or function.
See 3.67: Strength of plaster of Paris
9.4 Bird nests
See diagram 9.1.4: Parrots
Observe the activities of birds in nests but do disturb the nesting behaviour
of the birds. Observe nest building, bird habits and the materials used.
Abandoned nests reveal detail of construction and small organisms that live
in the nesting materials. After hatching, observe the feeding and care of
young. Note how defence of its territory by a bird is an important behaviour
in limiting the bird population in a given area. Note aggressive bird behaviour
in nesting and feeding areas. Be careful! Nesting birds may attack children.
9.5 Bird houses
See diagram 9.1.5: Bird houses
Birds may be attracted by houses that will help their nest building behaviour.
The internal size must be suitable for the nest of the bird. The entry hole
must be of appropriate size. Leave the interior unpainted. Put the house
where the bird will use it and at the proper height above the ground. Small
houses with tiny openings lure small birds. For example, a house for wrens
should be 10 cm by 10 cm by 12 cm, with an opening hole 2.5 cm diameter. Some
birds will nest in an open structure, e.g. the robin. Some birds need a house
that resembles a tree trunk and has an opening 10 cm across, e.g. screech
owls.
9.6 Feeders to attract birds
Be careful! Use safety glasses and thick gloves when building these feeders.
Handle metal netting, wire and tin with care. Always cut away from the body.
1. Mixed seeds and suet (sheep kidney fat) attract many bird types at
all seasons of the year. Bird feeders attract not only birds but also small
mammals, e.g. mice and squirrels. Observe food preferences, times of feeding
activity, and other behaviours.
2. Make a cubical suet cage from metal netting and nail it to a tree or
post. When cutting the metal netting, leave wire lengths protruding to be
bent over adjoining squares to hold the sides together. Leave the front panel
free at the top so that it may be opened to replace the suet. Fasten the closed
cage with wire loops.
3. Make an open bird feeder from wood or metal scrap with a roof to keep
snow and rain off the seeds. Construct sides to the feeder to prevent birds
from kicking out the seed mixture while searching for their favourite types
of seed.
4. Make another metal bird feeder by cutting out both ends of a coffee
tin, and attaching a cake pan under it with stiff wire. Make a plastic lid
to fit over the top and hang from a branch with wire.
9.7 Birds in your garden
Populations of many small bird species are declining because of loss off places
for them to live and raise their families in both rural farmlands and built
up areas. You can help these birds to survive by helping them to live in
your garden. However, some birds are nuisance birds. The Common Indian Myna (Acridotheres
tristis) reducs biodiversity by competing for nesting hollows
with Australian native birds and stopping them from breeding. Other nuisance
birds chase away other birds and spoil gardens, e.g. ibis, brush-turkeys
and miners. However these birds are protected so you cannot kill them.
In your garden, plant dense shrubs close together below a tree layer to form
protective thickets. Avoid using insecticides. Place bird baths close to
plants where birds can perch, in shade and out of the reach of cats. Feed
birds with native seed mix rather than bread or sunflower seeds. Do not feed
meat to birds because they may become aggressive to other birds and humans.
Keep you cat or dog away from the part of your garden where you want the birds
to visit
Backyard birds of Brisbane
Australian Brush-turkey, Australian White Ibis, Australian Magpie, Black-faced
Cuckoo-shrike, Blue-faced Honeyeater, Brown Honeyeater, Bush Stone-curlew,
Common (Indian) Myna, Common Koel, Crested Pidgeon, Figbird, Grey Butcherbird,
Laughing Kookaburra, Magpie-lark (Pee-wee), Noisy Miner, Pale-headed Rosella,
Pied Butcherbird, Rainbow Lorikeet, Red-backed Fairy-wren, Silvereye, Striated
Pardalote, Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, Superb Fairy-wren, Welcome Swallow,
Willie Wagtail
Common names: butcherbird, cockatoo, cuckoo-shrike, curlew, figbird, honeyeater, ibis,
koel, kookaburra, lorikeet, magpie-lark (pee-wee), magpie, miner, myna, pardalote,
pidgeon, rosella, silvereye, swallow, turkey, willie wagtail, wren
9.9 Body of cockroach or grasshopper
See diagram 9.9.0: Insect general body plan, vertical
section | See diagram 9.9.1: Cockroach | See diagram 9.9.2: Grasshopper | See diagram 9.9.3: Mouthparts | See diagram 9.9.4: Wings
Structure of insects
The body is divided into three regions, head, thorax and abdomen
1.0 The head, the neck is flexible in predators, e.g. praying mantis
1.1 Compound eye made of separate units (ommatidia) to provide "mosaic"
vision. Each ommatidium has an outer lens, seen as a facet and light sensitive
organ. Number of facets per eye: house fly 4 000 facets, butterfly 20 000,
dragonfly 25 000. Insect eye can detect movement but cannot focus. Most insects
cannot distinguish separate colours but how colours reflect ultraviolet light.
Most insects are attracted to ultraviolet light. so UV light electric "insect
zappers" are found in food shops. In the head of some insects are three ocelli,
structures to determine light intensity.
1.2 Mouthparts have 3 pairs of jaws:
1.2.1 Mandibles for biting and chewing, with flap above (labrum) as an
upper lip.
1.2.2 Maxillae can hold food and have sensory palps.
1.2.3 Labium acts as a lower lip but may be modified to form long feeding
tubes, e.g. sucking bugs (hemiptera) mosquito. The mayfly has no mouthparts,
so it cannot feed.
1.3 One pair of jointed antennae, organs of touch and smell. Mobile filaments
made up of segments linked by membranous joints. Long where sense of touch
is important, e.g. cockroach. Short where sight more important, e.g. dragonfly.
End of filament modified as flattened leafy plates, e.g. scarab beetle,
club at end, butterfly, elbowed shape, e.g. ants, feathery branched, e.g.
emperor moth.
2.0 Thorax has 3 segments fused to each other, prothorax pair of legs,
mesothorax pair of legs, pair of fore wings metathorax pair of legs, pair
of hind wings
2.1 Three pairs of jointed walking legs that end in claws, one pair on
each thoracic segment. Legs modified for digging, e.g. mole cricket, swimming,
e.g. water boatman, seizing prey, e.g. praying mantis, jumping, e.g. cricket
2.2 Two pairs of wings, if present, are on the second, or second and third,
thoracic segments.
The different arrangements of wings include the following:
2.2.1 Wings membranous flap supported by network of "veins" with arrangement
characteristic of different insects.
2.2.2 All 4 wings are used in flight to beat independently, e.g. dragon
fly or pairs of wings joined to beat as one wing, e.g. bee, butterfly, moth.
2.2.3 Fore-wings are thickened and hind-wings can be folded under them,
e.g. locust, grasshopper or modified to form protective shield not used in
flight (elytra), e.g. beetle.
2.2.4 House flies have hind wings modified as knobs (halteres).
2.2.5 Flightless insects have no wings, e.g. fleas, lice, some sucking
bugs.
3.0 Abdomen has 11 segments or less or fused, joined by thin membrane,
no appendages for locomotion on the abdomen.
3.1 At apex, male genitalia including claspers.
3.2 At end, female egg-laying organ (ovipositor) or modified to form a
sting, e.g. bee, ant, wasp.
3.3 Anus at end with segmented cerci on each side like small antennae,
but they can be modified to form forceps, e.g. earwig.
4.0 Respiration uses spiracles, laterally situated on some of the body
segments and leading into the tracheal system of tubes inside the body.
5.0 Chitinous exoskeleton. Exoskeleton (cuticle) made mainly of chitin
is hard, strong and impermeable.
Commercial
Microscope slide insect anatomy: Periplaneta (cockroach) trachea, legs
1. Observe the head, antennas, compound eyes, mouth
parts, three pairs of jointed legs, thorax, pairs of wings, abdomen, openings
along the side of the abdomen for breathing, wing veins that support the
wings and keep the wings rigid when flying.
2. Examine the body structure of the cockroach with a magnifying glass.
Hold a female cockroach with forceps, by one of its legs so that it can be
turned right round and inspected. Repeat the examination with a male cockroach.
Note the differences between the male and the female cockroaches from both
dorsal and ventral views. Note where the legs are attached to the abdomen.
Note whether the three pairs of legs all have the same design. Note the wings
attached to the abdomen, the antennas and the two large eyes on the head.
3. Examine prepared slides showing various parts of the head of cockroach
or find the mouth parts folded under the head and pointing backwards. Using
a fume cupboard, fume hood, detach the head and boil it in 5% potassium hydroxide
solution. Detach the mouth parts with forceps and dehydrate with methylated
spirit in a watch glass, then add some xylol. Make a circle with a polystyrene
mounting medium on a microscope slide. Arrange the mouth parts within the
circle then put on a coverslip.
4. Note how the mouth parts are modified for biting and crushing. Identify
the upper lip hinged to the lower portion of the face, a pair of mandibles
(first pair of jaws) at the sides of the mouth, a second pair of jaws behind
the first pair, and the lower lip.
9.10 Frog life cycle
See diagram 9.310: Frog life cycle
Put a clump of frog spawn the size of a fist into an aquarium. At least
half the water in the aquarium should come from the place where the frog
spawn was found. The water must be kept clean throughout the period of observation.
Frogs like leaf litter, clumps of grass and a few dead branches of trees
to serve as cool hiding places. Do not spray insecticides near frogs. Feed
tadpoles by adding boiled lettuce or boiled papaya leaves to the water every
three days. However, when the water becomes cloudy, replace a part so that
it is always clear. Algae will develop on the inside of the glass providing
nutrients for the young frog larvae. Give as much commercial fish food as
the frog larvae, tadpoles, can eat in half an hour. Remove any food uneaten
at the end of this time with the sludge extractor to prevent it decomposing
and clouding the water. Observe the development of the frog larvae and tadpoles
daily. When the tadpoles have legs, put a small floating piece of cork or
foam plastic on the surface of the water in the aquarium, or small branches
of trees, so that they can leave the water when necessary. Release the fully
developed young frogs when the observations have been completed.
In some fairy stories, a princess kisses a frog and a handsome young man
appears, however never kiss frogs!
Note the following:
1. Frog's egg in the gelatinous capsule
2. Young larva in the capsule
3. Larva with a tail, a young tadpole, that has emerged from the capsule
4. Large tadpole without legs
5. Tadpole with hind legs
6. Tadpole with hind legs and forelegs
7. Small young frog with the remains of a tail
8. Fully-developed young frog
9.10.1 Frogs and toads
Do not keep toads because some are poisonous. For example the cane toad,
Bufo marinus, is native to South America but was introduced to Pacific
Islands and Australia to control agricultural pests but is now a pest itself
because it has poisonous glands behind the eyes and across the back.
Tadpoles have have many shapes and colours, swim individually and you
can usually see through their lower abdomen skin to see their intestines.
Tadpoles are black with pointed snouts, very small and travel in groups.
Some frogs can look like toads but generally toads sit very upright, grow
bigger than frogs, have a rough skin, have glands behind the eyes, ridges
like eyebrows above their eyes, downwards turning mouths, move in very short
hops and cannot climb trees.
9.19 Insect collecting
Collecting from animals, parasitic insects
Collecting from bark
Collecting from birds' nests
Collecting from carcasses
Collecting from dung
Collecting from emergence boxes
Collecting from flight, only adult insects, use a butterfly net, use a
light trap
Collecting from flowers, shake flowers over an umbrella, also some small
insects inside flower buds
Collecting from foliage, hold an umbrella under foliage and beat the foliage
to dislodge the insects, eggs can also be collected from foliage
Collecting from fruit, keep fruit in a container to allow adult insects
to emerge
Collecting from fungus
Collecting from galls
Collecting from leaf litter
Collecting from leaves, larvae of leaf miners leave snake-like markings
on the leaves, pick leaf and keep fresh for adult to appear
Collecting from roots
Collecting from soil
Collecting from stones and rocks
Collecting from water, aquatic insects
Collecting from wood, dead wood
9.20 Insect collecting nets,
air net, sweep net
See diagram 9.3.14
Air net
To make an insect air net, use a broomstick, heavy wire and mosquito netting.
Bend a heavy piece of wire into a circle 45 cm in diameter, and twist the
ends together to form a straight section 15 cm in length. Fasten this to
the end of a broom handle with a wire. Cut a piece of mosquito netting to
form a net 75 cm deep and fasten to the circular wire frame with stitches.
Be careful! Use safety glasses and
thick gloves when handling heavy pieces of wire.
Sweep net
Make a sweep net with muslin and very heavy wire that will not bend when
the net is swept through grass. Sweep by working back and forth over a measured
area. Count the net contents to estimate the number of insects between the
soil surface and the grass tops. To find the relative numbers of insects,
sample the school grounds, a farm field, an abandoned field, forest floor
or other natural areas. Before the sweeping of vegetation, make small cages
for crickets or grasshoppers with metal insect netting. Be careful! Use safety
glasses and thick gloves when handling metal netting. Put grass, water and
a small dish of moist sand in each cage. Females may lay eggs in the sand.
9.21 Insect-killing
container
Obtain a wide mouth glass container with a screw top or one that closes
very tightly. Put a cotton wad in the bottom of the container and cover it
with a round piece of cardboard or absorbent paper that has several holes
punched through it. When the container is used, saturate the cotton wad with
an insecticide. Put the piece of cardboard over the cotton wad and then put
the insect in the jar. Close the container tightly and leave until the insect
is dead. Use a large container if collecting moths or butterflies to avoid
damaging the wings.
9.22 Insect stretching board
(setting board)
See diagram 9.3.15: Insect stretching board (setting
board)
Use an insect stretching board to prepare insects for mounting. Make the
stretching board from flat cork sheets or soft wood split into two equal
parts with a space 1 cm wide between them. Fit the cork sheets into a flat
cardboard or wooden box. Put the body of the insect in the space and pin
the wings on the top with strips of paper held by pins pushed into the cork
but not through the wings.
9.23 Mounting boxes for insect
collections
Use wood boxes for keeping insect collections. After removing the insect
from the stretching board, push a pin or long entomological pin through the
body and pressed into the bottom of the box to hold the insect. This is
called a mounted specimen. Arrange the pins in orderly fashion. Attach small
cardboard cards containing information about the insects, e.g. name, where
caught, date of capture. For displays in a school museum remove the lid and
cover with glass or cellophane taped to the box to make a permanent mounting.
Store soft-bodied larvae and pupae in tubes containing methylated spirit
or other special preservatives for insects.
9.24 Mounting block guide
A uniformly mounted collection is more attractive and makes it easy to
compare specimens. Make a wooden mounting block that looks like three steps.
Each step has a hole drilled through its centre. Use the top step to line
up all insects at the same height by impaling the insect and pressing the
pin through the top hole. The other steps provide uniform levels for labels
containing information about the specimens.
9.25 Simple insect cage
See diagram 9.3.14: Insect cages
Make a 15 cm cubical frame from ice cream bar sticks. Pull a ladies stocking
over the frame and close the open end by tying a loose knot. The open end
provides access to the cage interior.
9.26 Insectarium
Put 3 cm of moist, not wet, soil in an aquarium. Add rocks and a small
log. Transplant small plants from the garden. Catch insects and put them
in the aquarium. Cover the aquarium with wire or plastic mesh. Use only 3
or 4 beetles. Remove any leftover food after 3 days then add fresh food.
Sprinkle the soil with water when it becomes dry. Give lettuce or cabbage
leaves to grasshoppers. Give pieces of apple, plums, and bananas to bugs
and flies Give bread or fruit to ants and cockroaches. Give grain to beetles.
9.27 Insect behaviour diary
Note when are the insects are more active, when and how they feed, how
they get on with each another, when they sleep or rest at night or during
the day.
9.28 Night insects
Study night flying insects by setting up a light trap. It is a white sheet
stretched out between small trees at an angle of 30o from the
vertical. Put a bright light source under the sheet.
9.29 Insect collector
See diagram 9.29: Insect collector or "ant sucker"
Make an insect collector. Use a 30 cm length of plastic or glass tubing,
3 cm in diameter, a small piece of fine wire mesh, and a length of flexible
tubing. Cut a circular piece of wire mesh slightly larger than the inside
diameter of the glass or plastic tubing. Force the screen half way through
the tubing by pushing it with a rod.
9.30 Animal traps
You may need permission to keep animals in the school. Also you may have
to report periodically on what animals you keep and why they are necessary
for your teaching programme.
Catch small mammals and reptiles for study (not snakes). Use a large glass
container with a wide mouth and a screw-on cap. Make a one way door by cutting
an opening in the lid and attaching a free swinging metal door that opens
inward only. The door swings on a stiff wire. Transfer animals to cages without
direct handling. Be careful! Wear heavy leather gloves when handling reptiles
or mammals. Even when non-poisonous, bites from such animals may become
infected.
9.31 Animal cages
Keep animals in cages in the science room for short periods of observation.
Make a cage from a wooden box with a hinged lid that has a window covered
with wire netting. Cut windows in three sides of the box. Cover the side
and back windows with wire netting, and a fit a glass plate in the front window.
Add a drawer fitted under the front glass window and covering the entire
bottom of the cage to allow cleaning the cage without disturbing the animals.
9.32 Food and water for animals
Keep food and water containers above the floor of the cage. Make a feeding
trough for small animals by cutting a section from the side of a tin can,
bending over the sharp edges, and then attaching it to the side of the cage
with wires. Make a watering device for small animals from a bottle fitted
with a one-hole rubber stopper through which passes glass tubing. Invert
the bottle and insert the tubing through the screen into the cage. Change
food and water daily and clean cages once a week.
9.33 Earthworm behaviour, Lumbricus
See diagram 9.3.32 Earthworm observation
box
Make a wooden observation box 30 cm X 30 cm X 15 cm fitted with a glass
front to studying the habits of earthworms. Fill the box nearly to the top
with successive layers of 1. sand, 2. leaf mould, and 3. loam soil. Pat down
each layer before adding the next layer. Put lettuce leaves, dead leaves,
and pieces of carrot on the surface of the soil. Loosen the surface of the
soil and gently drop on some earthworms. Watch them burrow into the loose
soil. Keep the contents of the box damp and study the behaviour of the worms
through the glass front of the observation box.
9.34.0 Ant study
See diagram 9.3.33: Ant observation nest | See diagram 9.34.2: Ant life cycle | See diagram 9.29: Aspirator bottle, "pooter", "ant-sucker", "crawly keeper bug catcher"
Ants (Order Hymenoptera, Family Formicidae)
The life cycle has four stages, egg, larva, pupa, and adult. A winged
female is fertilized by a winged male in flight, then finds a protected
place or makes a chamber. She then bites off her wings and starts to lay
eggs. Fertilized eggs become diploid females. Unfertilized eggs become haploid
males. The eggs hatch into worm-like larvae that have no eyes or legs. They
eat food collected by the queen or regurgitated by worker ants. The larvae
moult many times as they get bigger. At full size the larvae spin a cocoon
around themselves and become a pupa that will change into the adult form
of ant by metamorphosis. The female worker ants forage for food and take
it to the queen or to storage. The males soon die but the queen and workers
can live for many years. The queen controls the activities of all the workers
or soldiers in the ant nest.
Make an ant observation nest with glass sides and a lid. Cut an entry
hole near the top of one side and plug it with cotton wool. Collect 100
ants with an insect collector (ant sucker) and put them in a bottle. Fill
the observation nest with soil from where the ants were collected to the
level of the plugged hole. To find the queen, dig up the earth and put it
on a white sheet. Break up the earth with the fingers and look for one ant
much larger than the others, the queen. Guide the queen to a second bottle.
To get the ants into the observation nest, fill a large flat tray with water
and put an upturned dinner plate in the middle to form an island. Put the
observation nest on the upturned plate and release the ants from the bottle.
When the queen is inside the nest, the other ants will follow her through
the entry hole. Plug the hole then remove the nest to its permanent place.
Put honey inside the entry hole to provide food, and keep the soil moist.
Study the activities inside the nest. Observe the laying of eggs, the larvae,
and how ants communicate by rapping each other on the head with their antennas.
Artificial light does not disturb the ants. Observe the activity inside the
tunnels parallel to the glass. Experiment by the removal and subsequent return
of a few ants, and the introduction of foreign ants. When the nest is settled
and the queen starts laying eggs, remove the cotton wool plug from the hole.
Put the observation nest near an open window and the ants will come and go
freely.
9.34.1 Flying ants and termites
Both ants (Order Hymenoptera, Family Formicidae) and termites (Order Isoptera,
white ants) can swarm during spring and summer. Swarming is a natural occurrence
that enables the colonies to reproduce and create additional nests. Flying
termites (alates) noticed outdoors should not normally be reason for alarm,
however more than a few swarming termites indoors may be a far more serious
problem. If you notice more than 20 termite alates indoors, i.e. they have
not flown in from outdoors, contact a pest controller without delay. Try
to capture and live specimens in a dry jar. Do not add water or any preservative.
Both flying termites and flying ants have two pairs of wings and their colour
is dark grey to black.
Termites:
1. Have antennae that are almost straight and have a beaded appearance.
2. Wings are virtually twice as long as their body
3. Both wing pairs are the same size.
4. Wing veins are not visible to the naked eye.
5. Have no taper to their body
6. Wings break off easily, with just a touch
Ants:
1. Have antennae that are elbowed (bent)
2. Wings differ in size. The outer pair is larger than the second pair.
3. Have narrow tapered waists
4. Wing veins are usually easily seen with the naked eye
5. Have sturdy wings that do not break off easily.
9.35.1 Fruit fly, (Drosophila),
cultures of fruit flies
See diagram 9.3.23: Male and female Drosophila
| See diagram 9.3.30: Graph of population study
The common fruit fly, Drosophila, is used in genetic studies. It
is easy to culture and reproduces rapidly, so it is suitable for population
studies. Put ripe fruit, e.g. a banana, in the bottom of a jar and fit a paper
funnel with a hole in the end in the mouth of the jar. Put the jar in the
open. When fruit flies have entered the jar, remove the funnel and plug it
loosely with cotton wool. The fruit flies should be both males and females.
The females are larger, with a broader abdomen. The males are smaller and
have a black-tipped abdomen. The females will soon lay eggs and larvae will
hatch after two days. Put a piece of newspaper in the jar for the larvae to
crawl on when they are ready to pupate and change to adult insects. Put newly-hatched
flies in another jar to start a new generation. Make daily counts of the
population in the bottle. When numbers become very large, stand a piece of
graph paper in the jar to count the number of pupae on the grid. Maintain
the bottle as long as the fruit flies survive. Investigate the relationship
between density of fly population, food preferences, temperature, life span
and population.
9.36 Flatworms, Dugesia,
Planaria
See diagram 9.3.22: Flatworms can regenerate
parts
Flatworms react to different stimuli and can regenerate lost parts.
Look for flatworms on the underside of submerged logs or stones in a pond
or lake. Trap them by placing a piece of raw beef liver in cloth, tying it
with a string and placing it in the water. Check the bait daily, and brush
off any flatworms into a small jar of the water where they were living. In
the classroom, use a medicine dropper to transfer them into a flat enamelled
pan. Keep the pan covered with a piece of brown cardboard when not observing
them. Once a week feed the flatworms with finely chopped liver, or hard-boiled
egg, or bits of worms. Remove uneaten food with a medicine dropper after three
hours.
Note how flatworms respond to various stimuli, e.g. light, sound, food,
mild electric shocks and Epsom salts. Use a magnifying glass to observe the
tube-like pharynx with which the flatworm uses to ingest its food.
A flatworms can regenerate parts if you put it on a glass microscope slide
and cut it with a sharp razor blade. Cut it in half across the body or down
the length of the body. A cut part-way down the mid line of the body can
produce a worm with two heads or two tails. After cutting the flatworm, return
the parts to the dish and do not feed until regeneration has occurred.
9.36.1 Flatworm behaviour,
Dugesia, Planaria
Flatworms react to various stimuli so they are suitable for simple studies
of behaviour. They also possess an ability to regenerate lost parts.
1. Find and feed flatworms
Look for flatworms on the underside of submerged logs or stones in a pond
or lake. The best species for study are the brown Dugesia or the larger Planaria. Trap them by wrapping a raw
liver in cloth, tying with string and putting it in a pond. In the classroom,
transfer the flatworms with a large medicine dropper into a bowl. Keep the
containers covered with a lid when not observing. Feed finely chopped liver,
hard-boiled egg, or bits of worm once a week. After 3 hours remove excess
food with a medicine dropper.
2. Flatworm behaviour
Observe how flatworms respond to light, sound, food sources, mild electric
shocks and chemicals, e.g. Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate crystals). Use
a magnifying glass enables to see the tube-like pharynx with which the flatworm
ingests its food.
9. Flatworms regenerate parts
Flatworms can regrow parts if you put a specimen on a glass slide and
cut it with a sharp razor blade. Cut worms in half across the body or down
the length of the body. A cut part way down the mid line of the body produces
a worm with two heads. After cutting, return the parts to the dish and do
not feed until regeneration has occurred.
1.2 Parasitic diseases
1. Arthropod diseases
Babesiosis, (Tick Ixodes scapularis), bacteria Babesia microti
Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis), Borrelia burgdorferi (bacteria carried by tick Ixodes holocyclus in Australia)
Pediculosis and phthiriasis, Pediculosis capitis (head louse, does not
carry disease), Pediculus humanus corporis (body louse, may carry typhus
(Rickettsia prowazeki), trench fever (Rochalimaea quintana) and relapsing
fever (Borrellia recurrentis), Pediculosis pubis (pubic louse, "Crabs"),
Phthirus pubis (pubic louse)
Scabies, Sarcoptes scabei (sandy crabs)
2. Fluke / trematode diseases
Clonorchiasis, Clonorchis sinensis, (Chinese liver fluke)
Fascioliasis, Fasciola hepatica, (liver fluke)
Fasciolopsiasis, (Fasciolopsis buski), (fluke)
Opisthorchiasis, Opisthorchis viverrini and Opisthorchis felineus, (liver fluke)
Paragonimiasis, Paragonimus westermani, lung fluke
Schistosomiasis (bilharzia, bilharziosis, snail fever), Schistosoma spp.
3. Nematode diseases
Angiostrongyliasis, Angiostrongylus cantonensis
Ascariasis, Ascaris lumbricoides
Capillariasis, Capillaria philippinensis, (C. hepatica, C. aerophila)
Dracunculiasis, Dracunculus medinensis, (Guinea worm)
Enterobiasis, Enterobius vermicularis, (human pinworm, threadworm, seatworm)
Filariasis, Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi or B. timori
Gnathostomiasis (larva migrans profundus), Gnathostoma spinigerum
Hookworm disease, Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale, A. ceylanicum, A. braziliense
Loiasis (Loa loa filariasis, Calabar swellings), Loa loa
Strongtryloidiasis, Strongyloides stercoralis
Trichinellosis (Trichiniasis), Trichinella spiralis
Trichuriasis, Trichocephalus trichiura, (whipworm)
4. Protozoan diseases
Amebiasis (Amebic dysentery; Amoebic dysentery; Intestinal amebiasis), Entamoeba histolytica
Balantidiasis (Balantidiosis), Balantidium coli
Cryptosporidiosis, Cryptosporidium enteritis
Giardiasis, Giardia lamblia, (traveller's diarrhoea)
Leishmaniasis (Kala-azar), Leishmania spp., (carried by sandfly)
Toxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma gondii
Trichomoniasis, Trichomonas vaginitis
5. Tapeworm diseases
Diphyllobothriasis, Diphyllobothrium latum (fish tapeworm)
Echinococcosis, (hydatid), Echinococcus multilocularis
Hymenolepiasis, Hymenolepis nana (H. diminuta), dwarf tapeworm, rat tapeworm
Taeniasis, Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm)
Toxocariasis, Toxocara canis (dog parasite), Toxocara cati (cat parasite), (both may infect humans)