In the Pacific islands large scale commercial plantations is in decline but smallholder production continues because coconuts are important for consumption, cash crops and shade for intercrops in subsistence agriculture. Green coconut water is an important source of fluids and mineral salts for people living on coral atolls and its isotonic properties make it useful for diarrhoea, cholera and other causes of dehydration. Coconut flesh supplements fish in remote communities. As a cash crop, coconuts may be sold locally, processed at village level to make coconut oil, meal and coconut cream but the main cash crop is copra sold to traders and processors. Prices of coconut products are not stable in the world market and cyclones may destroy crops, so coconut farmer need intercrops for income security. In the Pacific islands a big proportions of coconuts may not be picked up for harvest when prices are low because of the cost of labour from outside the family. Average figures for a smallholding of 0.5 hectares in Papua New Guinea have been estimated a nut yield of 3000 kg / hectare, average weigh 1.5 kg per nut, copra yield 0.24 kg / nut, copra yield 480 kg / hectare and total dried copra production of 240 kg. The smallholder has to pay for labour to collect nuts off the ground or harvest from tree, labour for dehusking, drying the endosperm and transport of copra to a trader. When the international copra price is low copra production is attractive only where alternative employment opportunities are limited. In many countries, a high percentage of coconut palms are senile with declining production. Smallholders may be content to allow self-seeding to maintain stands of trees of different ages instead of replacing palms with high yielding varieties to avoid a declining productivity which may not even be noticed. Where there is insecure land tenure or customary tenure, smallholders may not want to risk cash investment to improve yields. Where governments have been involved in the marketing, finance, regulation, research and advice of the coconut industry run by smallholders, the fees for such services have acted as a tax on smallholders and limited the use of new technologies to increase production.

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22.0 The coconut palm - voyager, nourisher and beautifier of the tropical world, Mike Foale, University of Queensland
Origin
On the geographical fringe of the great palm gene pool of Gondwanaland the coconut claimed for itself an exclusive niche among palms along the coastal edge of plant ecosystems - that is to say, the strand. The Pandanus tree of the strand is not a palm, being a member of the monocotyledon Pandanaceae Family. Freed from the constraint of competing at close quarters with most other species great and small by developing a sea-going seed, the coconut spread to strands all around the Tethys sea. This vast stretch of warm water was located between huge but disintegrating components of Gondwanaland - Antarctica and Australasia to the south, the African continent to the west, the Cretaceous land mass of Asia to the north, while being wide open eastwards to the Pacific, with its westward warm water flows. It seems likely that the Tethys sea was, for many millions of years, a warm environment, in which many species that we now associate with the zone flanking the equator, evolved and adapted to a tropical environment.
The coconut spread far and wide by floating between diverse fragments of land, among them Madagascar, Mauritius, southern India and Sri Lanka. It would eventually reach by natural dispersal the coasts of southeast Asia, the islands of present day Indonesia, southern Philippines, Hainan, New Guinea, Melanesia, and even Australia, Micronesia, and some Polynesian atolls and high islands.

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Domestication
Many millions of years would have elapsed until human groups migrated eastwards along the southern coasts of Asia, taking advantage of the presence of easily accessible and nourishing food and drinking water supplied from the coconut to support settlement and further migration. Settlers practised selection for palm and fruit traits which better suited their domestic and seagoing needs. Whereas the truly wild palm produced a fruit enclosing a small nut (of diameter about 100 mm) encased in a thick "'life-jacket" to maximize flotation and survival while "voyaging", a fruit enclosing a larger nut was favoured as a more convenient source of food and water. This delivered a greater amount of edible kernel, more easily scraped out, and there was less biomass invested in the husk and shell than in the wild fruit. A further advantage was that large fruit, harvested at the tender nut or drinking stage, contained a much more generous quantity of water - a great drink supply for voyaging traders and explorers. A nut only 20% larger in diameter than the wild type contains almost double the volume of water at the "drinking" stage of maturity, while encased in a thinner husk.
From about 4000 years BP the ancestral Polynesian settlers, extending their domain from south-east Asia eastwards, made great use of the coconut "water bottle" while travelling on their splendid double-hulled canoes (in which the planks are secured together with coconut fibre) to discover the many habitable islands of the south Pacific, and Hawaii. It seems very likely that almost everywhere, on arrival, they found the wild coconut on the strand which provided a nourishing welcome, particularly on atolls but also on the sandy beaches of high islands. Mature fruit germinating on board their vessels would have been available to plant at any new settlement. The presence of large-fruited palm populations on many Polynesian homelands in the Pacific, including Samoa, Tonga, Rotuma, Rennell and Sikaiana confirms this. The dominance of thick-husked types on most atolls suggests that their colonizers generally did not have large thin-husked nuts on arrival, allowing the wild type to remain dominant.

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The Australian coconut story
The history of the coconut in Australia is less clear and has become the subject of dispute between those who claim that it cannot be considered a native plant here and those who point to a small number of historical records of its presence before foreign settlement in the 19th century. McGillivray reported two clumps of palms observed in 1848 close together on Russell Island in the Frankland group south of Cairns in north Queensland, and Thozet described an isolated ancient palm sighted in the 1850s at Emu Park (near Yepoon) where there is a landmark named "Coconut Point” to acknowledge that discovery. It is clear that viable coconut seeds do come ashore naturally on the coast of north Queensland in particular, as local aboriginal languages include specific words for the edible fruit found on the beach. Avid collection of such fruit and even of sprouted nuts to extract the kernel treat found therein, and also the destruction of drifted fruit by the foraging native white-tailed rat, are likely reasons why the coconut was naturally present in so few places when the new settlers arrived. It is highly probable that there were coconut palms on the Queensland coast when the aborigines first arrived (around 50 000 years BP). The shoreline during that period of low sea level (peaking at 150 metres below its present level around 20 000 years BP due to the most recent ice age), would have been far to seaward from its present position. When the sea level rose during the melting of the Northern hemisphere ice over the millennia following the peak of the ice age, older palms on the shore would have gradually been overtaken. Meanwhile their seed would have been thrown "forward" to establish new palms on the strand as it slowly "retreated" before the ever-rising tide.

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Life story
The growth of the coconut seedling is supported by the energy reserve in the kernel, lasting for up to 15 months. In nature this would have greatly increased the probability that the germinating seedling growing on a deep sandy strand could survive the delay until its roots reached the water table or adequate stored water in the deep heavy-textured soil profile. The water present in the coconut seed stimulates germination once the husk adjacent to the germ pore is leached free of salt water. The haustorium then expands into the cavity, gradually absorbing the rich nutrient and energy supply provided by the kernel, translocating it to the seedling. This prolonged "alternative" supply of biomass to support growth has led to another "career" for the coconut seedling, as a successful indoor plant. It can thrive for up to two years in a temperature above 21C at any latitude while the leaves achieve limited photosynthesis. Some leaf exposure to sunlight penetrating indoors could further extend the ornamental life of the seedling.
Apart from its unique large fruit (exceeded only by the fruit of Laodicea maldivica, Coco-de-Mer) the coconut shares key botanical traits with many other palms: steady production of non-thorny fronds, and inflorescences, when temperature is not seasonal; monoecious habit with large female and small male flowers on every palm; clean shedding of the frond after about two years except in very dry environments. Palms such as coconut, lacking the ability to generate suckers, are destined to perish within about 100 years from germination, as their inexorable height increase is combined, beyond 60 years, with narrowing and weakening of the upper trunk, known as "pencil pointing".
The coconut species (Cocos nucifera L) has three clearly distinguished sub-types, being the Tall, the' fragile Dwarf and the robust Dwarf. The latter is not widely dispersed and might well have been the product of prolonged natural or human-assisted selection in cyclone-prone regions. A short sturdy palm, out-crossing and more conveniently harvested by climbing, it is found almost exclusively in Polynesia and Fiji and might well have been among the genotypes "planted-on-arrival” on new shores, or traded during the many exchange visits that took place in Polynesia.
The more common fragile dwarf also has a reduced rate of height increase, but this is combined with a narrower trunk. Not common in cyclone-prone regions, this dwarf frequently displays the genetically recessive orange and yellow fruit colours (some have the non-recessive green colour) because it is predominantly self-pollinating. The small fruit, borne in large number, is a very convenient source of drink in the home and village, as harvest is relatively easy, at least for 25 years, and the water content is modest. The tall type of coconut exhibits a very rapid rate of trunk extension (as high as 1.5 m/yr) from age four years until 10 years or so, at which time an increasing proportion of new biomass is diverted from trunk extension to supply rising fruit production. Cross-pollination is the rule for tall-type palms, resulting in obvious heterozygosity in fruit size, shape and colour (mostly shades of green and brown) compared to the inbreeding dwarf, but generally there is little variation in trunk and crown characters within tall populations.

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Many products and uses
Coastal communities consume coconut water and milk extracted from the kernel on a daily basis, as do most rural peoples of the humid tropical lowlands. Mature and tender nuts are traded extensively into nearby highland and urban regions. Coconut milk, pressed daily from shredded kernel, is a routine ingredient in traditional cuisine. Heating coconut milk to evaporate the water provides an oil of attractive flavour for domestic use, as well as for local use in skin lotions and shampoos. It is this oil which got the attention of European traders and subsequently entered international trade in the mid-19th century as dried kernel (copra) which comprises about two thirds oil by weight.
The sap tapped from the bound-up inflorescence is valued highly in many traditional cultures, especially Sri Lanka, parts of Indonesia and Philippines and Micronesia. It provides a vitamin-rich beverage when fresh, an alcoholic drink after fermentation, and a source of palm sugar when evaporated.
Rapidly growing demand for oil to supplement the supply of animal fats including tallow and whale oil resulted in widespread investment in coconut plantations producing copra. This is the kiln- or sun dried kernel which was stored and then transported to developed countries.. particularly in Europe and north America. Coconut oil enjoyed a period of several decades as the dominant traded vegetable oil, but high price due to increasing demand and disrupted trade during the mid-20th century, brought about a rapid rise in production of many other oils - notably soy, palm oil, and canola. Inevitably the price fell, and a combination of low yield and a high cost of production rendered most coconut plantations unprofitable by the 1980s. In some regions the plantations reverted to indigenous ownership with copra production ongoing, while in others oil palm, replaced coconut, often with a core plantation and satellite oil palm farms for smallholders.
The oil palm, as a plantation crop, was developed to a much higher level of productivity than coconut and retains attractive profitability which is supporting continuing expansion, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia. Even so, the coconut retains a vital role and high status in small communities throughout the tropics as a life-supporting resource and also as a means to generate a modest income-on-demand for the small-holder farmers.

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Productivity for the oil market
The productivity of the coconut in a plantation environment is constrained by its basic anatomy and physiology which evolved to ensure its survival and fruitfulness on strand environments combined with a capacity to disseminate seeds to new locations via the ocean. The wild-type coconut invests its energy in a prolific root system capable of a strong grip while exploring the soil widely and deeply, a dense but remarkably flexible trunk to help orient the resilient crown to reduce the pressure of potentially destructive wind. The fronds have a very robust rachis (stem) to cope with wind assault, while also being designed [by nature] to separate from the trunk under extreme wind stress. Perhaps the coconut palm could be described as a first class choice for second class environmental conditions? It copes with highly alkaline sandy soil, proximity to the sea, alternating seasonal drought and high rainfall, fluctuating humidity, high light intensity, and the assault of cyclonic wind. It is not surprising that small-holders are very attached to the palm for their survival.
In a plantation configuration a single coconut palm develops only three-quarters of the active leaf area of an oil palm, while the latter is far better equipped, by its evolution in the rainforests of West Africa, to achieve sustained productivity while crowded together. Hybrid coconuts yield much more than others but still are not competitive with the productivity of the oil palm. The coconut achieves 25% less light interception and 25% less biomass production, of which 8-10% of new biomass comprises oil, compared with 18% for the oil palm, implying that for oil yield alone the oil palm's potential is more than double that of the coconut. This weak position of coconut productivity is mitigated somewhat by the higher value of its by-products, comprising kernel residue, shell, peat and fibre. Coconut water is an alternative product mostly extracted from the immature fruit, which has little by-product value except as raw mulch, but strong demand has resulted in profitable ventures in coconut water production, particularly in India and Brazil.

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A palm with charisma
The coconut is a favourite outdoor ornamental in many tropical locations, increasing the visual amenity of streetscapes and beach-side resorts. It has come to symbolize the relaxed and indulgent life-style that many visitors from cooler and more crowded places are seeking for their holiday. Unfortunately a misguided assessment of the risk that failing fruit might pose to the passers-by in these places has led to zealous pruning of fruit from the palms, at the behest of insurance providers in north Queensland for example. Whereas simple guard barriers and clear signage indicating possible areas of risk should suffice, resort managers and local authorities have bowed to the demand for "zero risk" resulting in palms being twice-yearly denuded of fruit. This fruit loss leads to
development of a crown comprising widely-spaced up-swept fronds which together resemble more a giant feather duster than the lovely spherical crown of a productive palm.

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Resilience and adaptability
The relative isolation of the coconut from competing plants and marauding microfauna and microflora in its evolutionary incubator on the strands of the Tethys sea has resulted in a plant which suffers much from the attacks of many insects, fungi and other micro-organisms when intensively managed. The coconut has very few "obligate enemies", meaning life forms that are specific to itself. On the other hand some pests, including the rhinoceros beetle, palm weevil, locusts, leaf miners, sucking and scale insects find the coconut very attractive among the many species that they are capable of attacking.
There are some examples, however, where the coconut has developed tolerance to a particular hostile organism, indicating a prolonged association of the palm and the organism. A case in point is the Foliar Decay virus of coconut which is unique to some islands in Vanuatu. The local coconut populations showed no symptoms of harm and indeed the presence of the virus was only detected in the 1980s, when the virus attacked all introduced varieties of coconut, causing death. The virus was identified and described by an Australian research group from Adelaide.

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A most nutritious dietary component
The most contentious aspect of recent coconut history is its misguided demonization by competing vegetable oil marketers depicting it as an unhealthy food risking heart disease. Laboratory animals fed a diet in which the sole fat was hydrogenated coconut oil became unhealthy, in contrast to others on a sole soy fat diet. The saturated fat hypothesis, "that such fats raise serum cholesterol, which in turn gives rise to heart disease" was being developed at the time of that trial and this result fitted expectation. With aggressive advertising marketers of unsaturated fats, especially soy, were able to take over the market share of coconut (and many animal fats as well) in USA and further afield. That campaign continues to this day in spite of indisputable evidence that millions of inhabitants of tropical coastal places have enjoyed life free from heart disease on a diet that has included a high proportion of coconut oil. The difference of their diet from the coconut diet in the original trial is that the traditional diet includes fish, rich in omega 3 oil, a component not found in coconut oil but present in soy oil.
The realization of the essential role of omega 3, and also omega 6 ( present only in minute concentration in coconut) fatty acids has presented a feasible explanation for the good health of coconut users on a varied fat diet. Nevertheless the perception persists among many health professionals and consumers that coconut oil should be avoided. This is most unfortunate as the unique medium-chain (small molecule) fatty acids of coconut oil can make a remarkable contribution to good health. There is evidence from rigorous laboratory studies that these fatty acids boost body energy in Type 2 diabetes sufferers, and innumerable case studies support the value of coconut oil.
In summary the coconut stands out among palms, and indeed among plants generally, as a most attractive contributor to visual amenity of a landscape and a most valuable food source. To that could be added all the other products and uses made of practically every one of its anatomical parts. This places the coconut as an outstanding member of the palm family and indeed a member of the short list of plants which have contributed to human economy and culture in both ornamental and life-supporting roles.

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Further reading:
Dowe HL and Smith LT (2002) A brief history of the coconut palm in Australia. Palms: 46(3) 134-138
Foale MA and Ashburner GR (2005) The Coconut Palm. In: Handbook of Industrial Crops. The Howarth Press Inc. Binghampton New York pp 235-294
Foale, Mike (2003) The Coconut Odyssey - the bounteous possibilities of the tree of life. ACIAR: Canberra. Available online as a pdf file from www.aciar.gov.au/publication/MN101
Foale, Mike and Harries, Hugh. (2008) Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing profile for Coconut. Online at - http://agroforestry.net/scps/Coconut speciality crop.pdf
Friend D and Corley R11V (2004) Measuring coconut palm dry matter production. Exp. Agric. 30:223235
Harries K and Paull RE (2008) Cocos nucifera Coconut. pp 107-118 In: J Janick & R E Paull (Eds) The Encyclopedia of Fruit and Nuts. Oxford University Press, USA.
McGillivray (1852) Voyage of the Rattlesnake. London
Mohd. Basri Wahidl, Siti Nor Akmar Abdullah2 and 1. E. Henson (2004) Oil Palm Achievements and Potential. Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science Congress, 26 Sep 1 Oct 2004, Brisbane, Australia. Published on CDROM. Web site: www.cropscience.orp,.au
Thozet (1869) Journal of Botany
Turner N et all (2009) Enhancement of Muscle Mitochondrial Oxidative Capacity and
Alterations in Insulin Action Are Lipid Species Dependent: Potent Tissue-Specific Effects of Medium-Chain Fatty Acids. Diabetes November 2009 58:2547-2554

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